1: 24,000 2,000 feet 24.0¢ USGS 7 Quads
1: 15,840 1,320 feet 15.85¢ Soil
1: 9,600 800 feet Aerial photos
Source <http://id.water.usgs.gov/reference/map_scales.html>
Starting with Database
Software requirements
• Database management systems such as Microsoft SQL server 2008
• Shape2SQL
• GIS software such as Quantum GIS (QGIS)
• GIS data
Steps
1. Select to Start Æ All Programs Æ Microsoft SQL Server 2008 R2 Æ SQL Server Management Studio.
Result: User will be prompted to connect to a server. Settings for local machine (your system) will be
Server type: Database engine Server name: Local machine name Authentication: Windows authentication Click on connect
2. Expand the database instance. Then the user will right click on the database folder and select New Database from the menu.
Result: New database window will open and setting for this window will be:
Name of database: mynew_database
Add Path Settings for data and log files. (Wherever you want to save your data in local machine, may be C drive!)
Click OK and refresh to see the empty database named as mynew_database under database instance.
3. Open Shape2SQL
4. Navigate for .shp file (GIS data) stored in local machine using select button
5. Set the database configuration Click on the Configure Button
Enter the name of the server in the Server Name window (will be same as mentioned above)
Select Use Windows Authentication
Select the appropriate database (in our case, it is mynew_database) Click OK and go back to uploader window
6. Select the data type in uploader window either as geometry or as geography. Let us select geometry type.
7. Next set the name of the geometry column. The default for this setting is “geom”, but the one can change this accordingly.
8. Select the required columns of .shp file. By default all the columns will be uploaded, but we can omit specific columns by just unchecking column name.
9. Select upload to database
Done … it’s time to query the data…we have just uploaded
Example 1 Retrieve the list of top 60 records of city_databse table existing in mynew_database.
Solution use mynew_database go
Select top 60 * from city_databse.
Example 2 Retrieve the name of cities from table city_databse whose population is greater than 100,000.
Solution In SQL, a WHERE clause is used to extract those records that fulfil a specified criterion. Hence, query will be like:
use mynew_databse go
Select * from city_databse
Where city_population £ 100,000
Example 3 Find the names of all cities whose name includes the substring “Abc”.
Solution Select city_name From city_databse
Where name like “%Abc%”
Example 4 Find the total number of cities that have an area less than 200 km.
Solution use mynew_databse go
Select count (distinct id) From city_databse Where city_area £ 10,000
Example 5 Find the average population of cities in each state.
Solution use mynew_databse go
Select city_name, avg (population) from city_databse
group by state_name
Example 6 List the name of all cities in ABC and XYZ states.
Solution use mynew_databse go
Select city_name from state_ABC UNION ALL
Select city_name from state_XYZ
Note: The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.
Map accuracy: Map accuracy can be defined as the degree to which information on map or digital database matches to original values.
Example 7 A map has an RF scale of 1: 24,000. What is the horizontal accuracy of the map?
Solution
Assumption: The horizontal accuracy of a map having scale smaller than 1: 20,000 is 1/50 inch.
So 1” = 2000’
2000 × 0.02 = 40
Hence, the required horizontal accuracy is ± 40 feet.
Affine transformation: Any transformation that preserves colinearity.
Atmospheric window: A part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be transmitted through the atmosphere with relatively little interference.
Batch processing: Execution of a series of programs (jobs) on a computer without manual intervention.
Block encoding: A method in which a block of data bits is mapped into a block (often slightly larger) of signalling bits prior to transmission.
Advantages of block coding include electrical balance, error detection, and synchronization.
Buffer: A proximity analysis tool used to create polygons based on a specified distance from the original geometrical feature.
Cartography: A discipline dealing with the conception, production, dissemination, and study of maps.
Chain encoding: A binary code consisting of a cyclic sequence of some or all of the possible binary words at a given length such that each word is derived from the previous one by moving the binary digits one position to the left, dropping the leading bit, and inserting a new bit at the end, in such a way that no word recurs before the cycle is complete.
Classification: A systematic arrangement in groups or categories according to established criteria.
Conceptual model: It represents “concepts” (entities) and the relationships between them.
Conic projection: A type of map in which a cone is wrapped around a sphere (the globe), and the details of the globe are projected onto the cylindrical surface. The cylinder is then unwrapped onto a flat surface.
Cylindrical projection: A type of map in which a cylinder is wrapped around a sphere (the globe), and the details of the globe are projected onto the cylindrical surface. Then the cylinder is unwrapped onto a flat surface, yielding a rectangular-shaped map.
Data compression: Encoding of data to save storage space or transmission time. Data compression schemes fall into two main categories—lossy and lossless.
Data decoding: Conversion of an encoded format back into the original sequence of characters.
Data encoding: The process of putting a sequence of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation, and certain symbols) into a specialized format for efficient transmission or storage.
Data type: A data storage format that can contain a specific type or range of values.
Data: Factual information, especially information organized for analysis or used to reason or make decisions.
Database: An application that manages data and allows fast storage and retrieval of that data.
Datum: A math model that depicts a part of the surface of the earth.
Latitude and longitude lines on a paper map are referenced to a specific map datum.
Digital elevation model: Data files that contain the elevation of the terrain over a specified area, usually at a fixed grid interval over the surface of the earth.
Electromagnetic spectrum: The entire range of electromagnetic radiation.
At one end of the spectrum, there are gamma rays, which have the shortest wavelengths and highest frequencies. At the other end, there are radio waves, which have the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies.
General purpose map: It shows common features of land such as roads and political boundaries. The most common general purpose map is the road map.
Generalization: It is the abstraction, reduction, and simplification of features so that a map is clear and uncluttered at a given scale.
Geographic information system (GIS): A system that integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analysing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information.
GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts.
Geometric transformation: A one-to-one mapping of a straight line, plane, or space onto itself. Usually, sets of geometric transformations are considered such that each finite sequence of transformations in the set can be replaced by one transformation of the set and a
transformation inverse to any of those considered also belongs to the given set.
Hardware: It refers to the physical parts of a computer and related devices.
Internal hardware devices include motherboards, hard drives, and RAM. External hardware devices include monitors, keyboards, mice, printers, and scanners.
Information system: A combination of hardware, software, infrastructure, and trained personnel organized to facilitate planning, control, coordination, and decision-making in an organization.
Information: Produced by all processes, and it is the values of characteristics in the processes’ output.
Knowledge: The fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association.
Management information system: A computer system that stores and distributes information on how to successfully manage an organization; it is usually regarded as a subset of the internal controls of a business.
Map scale: A ratio that compares a measurement on a map to the actual distance between locations identified on the map.
Map: A two-dimensional representation of the earth’s surface on a flat surface with the help of signs and symbols.
Mie scattering: It is caused by pollen, dust, smoke, water droplets, and other particles in the lower part of the atmosphere.
Network analysis: The general name given to certain specific techniques that can be used for the planning, management, and control of projects.
Network data model: A database model conceived as a flexible way of representing objects and their relationships.
Object-oriented model: It is based on a collection of objects; for example, the E-R model.
Overlay: It is defined as a spatial operation, which combines different geographic layers to generate new information. Overlay is done using arithmetic, Boolean, and relational operators and is performed in both vector and raster domains.
Planer projection: A type of map in which the details of the globe are projected onto a plane (a flat surface) yielding a rectangular-shaped map.
Projection: Transforming three-dimensional space onto a two- dimensional map.
Quardtree encoding: A method of encoding raster data that reduces storage requirements and improves access speeds by storing values only for homogeneous regions rather than for every pixel. The raster is recursively subdivided into quadrants until all regions are homogeneous or until some specified level has been reached.
Raster data model: It incorporates the use of a grid-cell data structure where the geographic area is divided into cells identified by rows and columns.
Rayleigh scattering: It mainly consists of scattering from atmospheric gases. This occurs when the particles causing the scattering are smaller in size than the wavelengths of radiation in contact with them.
Remote sensing: The technique of obtaining information about objects through the analysis of data collected by special instruments that are not in physical contact with the objects of investigation.
Run length encoding: A kind of compression algorithm that replaces sequences (runs) of consecutive repeated characters (or other units of data) with a single character and the length of the run. This can either be applied to all input characters, including runs of length one, or a special character can be used to introduce a run-length- encoded group.
Scattering: Spreading of a stream of particles or a beam of rays, as of light, over a range of directions as a result of collisions with other particles.
Software: A general term for the various kinds of programs used to operate computers and related devices.
Spaghetti data model: Vector data composed of simple lines with no topology and usually no attributes. Spaghetti lines may cross, but no intersections are created at those crossings.
Thematic map: A type of map or chart especially designed to show a particular theme connected with a specific geographic area.
Topographic map: It shows elevation contour lines, in addition to detailed road, town, and physical characteristics of the landscape.
Topological data model: An arc/node data model that contains two basic entities—arc and node. The arc is a series of points joined by straight line segments that start and end at a node.
Topology: The theory of shapes that are allowed to stretch, compress, flex, and bend, but without tearing or gluing.
Transaction-processing system: An information-processing system for business transactions involving the collection, modification, and retrieval of all transaction data.
Transformation: A process of moving a shape so that it is in different position with similar shape, size, angle, and length.
Triangular data model: A series of triangles constructed using elevation data points taken from coverage. These triangles are used for surface representation and display.
Vector: It comes in the form of points and lines that are geometrically and mathematically associated. Points are stored using coordinates;
for example, a two-dimensional point is stored as (x, y).
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A
Accuracy, defined, 67 positional and types of, 67, 67f
Affine transformation, 59, 137 ArcGIS, 73, 84
Arithmetic functions, 80 Atmospheric,
absorption, 90, 92 scattering, 90 window, 92, 108, 137 Attribute,
accuracy, 67
data, 16, 32, 41, 65–86, 116
B
Batch processing, 4, 137 Block encoding, 42, 42f , 137 Buffer, 80–82, 137
defined, 80 distance, 81 operation , 82f Buffering, 69, 81, 82
line, 81
C
Cartography, 14–15, 38, 49, 68, 71, 137 data components of, 14
attribution data, 14 location data, 14
and GIS, 14–15
Chain encoding, 43, 43f, 137 Conceptual models, 19, 29 Conditional overlay, 80 Contrast stretching, 104
Coordinate system, 6, 14, 16, 19, 31, 38, 50f, 50–53, 57, 58, 60, 61, 67
two-dimensional and three- dimensional, 50–51 types of, 50–51
D Data,
capture, 38, 68, 81, 131 classification, 74 compression, 41, 138 decoding, 40, 138 encoding, 40, 138
and information, differences between, 1–2, 2t
layering, 75 meaning of, 1 preprocessing, 68
four sequential steps of, 68–69 Datum transformation, 58–60, 60f Decision support system, 5, 113, 114 Delaunay construction rule, 22
Digital elevation model (DEM), 19, 24–25, 41, 82, 138
diagram of, 24f properties of, 25 Note: f has been used for figures and t is used for tables.
Digitization, 9, 61–63, 66, 68 methods of, 61–63
E Earth,
local and geocentric datum of, 52, 52f
shape of, 51–52
as sphere or a spheroid, 52f Edges and nodes, 84
Electromagnetic radiation, 87–94, 138 interaction with atmosphere, 89–90
interaction with earth’s surface, 92–93
Electromagnetic spectrum, 88, 89, 89f, 92–94, 98, 99, 137, 138
for remote sensing, 93–94 Electromagnetic waves, 88–89, 93
uses of, 89t
Entity-relationship model, 19 Executive information system, 4, 5
F
Frequency domain methods, 103, 104
G
General-purpose maps, 47, 49, 49f Geographic information system, application development with
open source, 115–121 applications of, 13–14, 109–121 block diagram of, 11f
components of, 8f, 8–9
data acquisition method for, 69f database, 9, 10, 12, 16–17, 63, 68, 72, 73, 106, 112
basic characteristics of, 16–17 components of, 16
data types of, 17–19
desired properties of stored data in, 17t
in electrical engineering applications, 112–113 explained, 5–6
functionality, 61, 68, 86 generalization in, 70–71 importance of, 12–13 layer representation of, 10f objectives of, 11–12
for planning and decision- making, 109–110, 110f representation of, 7f data in, 71, 72f spatial analysis in, 70–71 terms associated with, 6–7 uses in different industries, 13t in water management, 113–114 working of, 9–10
central phases of, 9–11
Geographical coordinate system, 51, 53f
Geography, defined, 6
Geometric transformation, 61, 138 Geotechnical engineering, 111–112
advantages of, 112–113 Graticules, 53, 54f
H
Heads-up digitizing, 61, 62 Hierarchical models, 19, 29, 29f Histogram, 102–104
Hybrid classification, 107
I
Identity overlay, 78 Image,
classification, 104–107 enhancement, 103, 103f, 104
histogram, 102, 102f
pixel representation of, 100f processing, 39, 87–108
fundamental steps in, 100–101 subsystems of, 101
supervised and unsupervised, 105–107
Information system components of, 3
computer-based, 3, 5, 13, 65, 70, 86 defined, 2–3
major functions and examples of, 5t
types of, 4–5 Intersect overlay, 77, 78f Inter-visibility, 82–83, 83f
K
Knowledge, defined, 1
L
Landsat TM, 22, 98–100 Logical operation, 80 Low-pass filtering, 104
M
Management information system, 4, 5, 139
Manual digitization, 61–62
Map projection, 10, 50, 51, 53, 57f–58f, 58, 139
basic techniques of, 55–57 types of, 54–55
Map scale, 36, 37, 44, 124, 125, 129, 130, 139
and scale conversions, 45–46 ways to represent, 44 Maps,
explained, 44 types of, 47–51
Mexico Valley Basin, 48f Mie scattering, 91, 108, 139
N
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 99
National Research Council, 113 Network,
analysis, 32, 37, 38, 71, 84, 85, 85f, 86, 139
models, 19, 25 arcs in, 25–26, 26f uses of, 25 theory, 83–84
Non-selective scattering, 91, 91f
O
Object-oriented models, 19, 27, 28f fundamental concepts of, 27 properties of, 28
Online,
batch systems, 4 real-time systems, 4 Orbits, 96
of a satellite, 96f and swaths, 96–97 Overlay, 9, 11, 38, 65–86, 139
operations, 76f, 76–78, 80 for vector data, 76–77, 77f
P
Pearson, Karl, 102
Pixel, 18, 21, 24, 38, 41, 42, 62, 97, 100, 102–106, 140
representation of image by, 100f Planer projection, 139
Platforms, 87, 95, 99
Polynomial transformation, 59 Positional accuracy, 67, 81
Projection transformation, 58–59, 59f types of, 59