Finally, it is important that we frame our discussion of human resilience within another construct. The foregoing discussions of “optimism” and human resilience may be viewed within the broader perspective of “positive psychology.” The science of positive psychology is a recent designation predicated on fundamental issues such as happiness, well-being, excellence, and optimal human functioning, among others (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ) . In essence, the focus of positive psy- chology is on what makes life worth living for individuals, families, and communi- ties. What Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi note, however, is that since World War II, the emphasis of psychology as a science has been on assessing and treating men- tal illness. At the start of a new millennium, they suggest that we have reached a time in our history when we should formalize our research efforts to understand systematically what makes individuals and communities fl ourish. It will be interest- ing to observe the empirical and theoretical impact of positive psychology over the next several years, both within and outside of the social sciences. We recognize and appreciate that positive psychology should not be construed as a subtype of cogni- tive therapy (Seligman, personal communication, June 2000); rather, positive psychology is a far broader construct that may indeed be fostered via the use of cognitively based techniques as well as other processes mentioned within the current chapter.
Summary
In this chapter we have introduced and reviewed core concepts related to human resilience. Here we review the main concepts:
1. The history of stress management has largely been reactive. By that we mean stress management was initially conceived of as a means to manage stress that had become “excessive.” We now argue that the fi nal frontier in this endeavor is the quest to be more proactive. The term resilience bene fi ts from nonpathological orientation and connotation.
2. The Johns Hopkins’ Model of Resistance, Resilience, Recovery serves to lend heuristic value in the creation of a continuum of care, something that was here- tofore lacking.
3. We believe that the de fi ning elements of human resilience reside in seven core characteristics, all of which can be learned: (1) innovative, nondogmatic thinking, (2) decisiveness, (3) tenacity, (4) interpersonal connectedness, (5) honesty and integrity, (6) self-control, and (7) optimism and a positive perspective on life.
4. The key to the successful and resilient families, organizations, and communities appears to be the creation of a “culture of resilience.” Simply stated, the culture of resilience is an environment wherein resistance and resilience are, not only fostered but also are the core fabric of the culture itself. The question then arises as how to create a culture of resilience.
5. Everly et al. ( 2010 ) postulate that the best way to create the culture of resilience is through resilient leadership. Resilient leadership practices serve as the catalyst that inspires others to exhibit resistance and resilience and to exceed their own expectations. It helps create a culture of resilience wherein adversity is seen as opportunity and support is omnipresent. They argue that four characteristics are essential to communicate resilient leadership and to foster the development of a culture of resilience: (1) optimism, (2) decisiveness, (3) integrity, and (4) open communications.
6. Albert Bandura points out that “self-ef fi cacy is an essential aspect of life itself;
“People guide their lives by their beliefs of personal ef fi cacy” (p. 3). He goes on to note:
“People’ s beliefs in their ef fi cacy have diverse effects. Such beliefs in fl uence the courses of action people choose to pursue, how much effort they put forth in given endeavors, how long they will persevere in the face of obstacles and fail- ures…” (Bandura, 1997 , p. 3). Bandura has described four sources that affect the perception of self-ef fi cacy and are particularly relevant in terms of the building of stress resilience. They are as follows:
(a) Self-ef fi cacy by doing things successfully.
(b) Self-ef fi cacy by watching others be successful.
(c) Self-ef fi cacy through coaching, encouragement, support.
(d) Self-ef fi cacy through self-regulation. These serve as an important foundation for human resilience.
7. Suzanne Kobasa’ early research on hardiness revealed that individuals who dem- onstrate a commitment to self, family, work, and/or other important values; a sense of control over their lives; and the ability to see life change as an opportu- nity will experience fewer stress-related diseases/illnesses even though they may fi nd themselves in environments laden with stressor stimuli.
8. Finally, the entire notion of human resilience may best be understood within the overarching construct of positive psychology.
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