IN THE NEWS
farms. What determines who is a farmer and who is not? In a free society, there is no government planning agency making this decision and ensuring an adequate supply of food. Instead, the allocation of workers to farms is based on the job deci- sions of millions of workers. This decentralized system works well because these decisions depend on prices. The prices of food and the wages of farmworkers (the price of their labor) adjust to ensure that enough people choose to be farmers.
If a person had never seen a market economy in action, the whole idea might seem preposterous. Economies are enormous groups of people engaged in a multitude of interdependent activities. What prevents decentralized decision making from degenerating into chaos? What coordinates the actions of the millions of people with their varying abilities and desires? What ensures that what needs to be done is in fact done? The answer, in a word, is prices. If an invisible hand guides market economies, as Adam Smith famously suggested, then the price system is the baton that the invisible hand uses to conduct the economic orchestra.
Source: CNBC.com, Oct 31, 2012.
which customers get the batteries, the gro- ceries, the gasoline?
We could hold a lottery. Perhaps people could receive a ticket at the grocery store.
Winners would get to shop at the usual prices.
Losers would just go hungry. Or, more likely, they would be forced to buy the food away from the lottery winners—at elevated prices no doubt, since no one would buy food just to sell it at the same price. So the gouging would just pass from merchant to lottery win- ning customer.
We could have some sort of rationing pro- gram. Each person could be assigned a por- tion of the necessary goods according to their household need. This is something the U.S.
resorted to during World War II. The problem is that rationing requires an immense amount of planning—and an impossible level of knowl- edge. The rationing bureaucrat would have to know precisely how much of each good was available in a given area and how many peo- ple would need it. Good luck getting that in place as a hurricane bears down on your city.
We could simply sell goods on a first come, first serve basis. This is, in fact, what anti-gouging laws encourage. The result is all too familiar. People hoard goods. Store shelves are emptied. And you have to wonder,
why is a first to the register race a fairer sys- tem than the alternative of market prices?
Speed seems a poor proxy for justice.
Allowing prices to rise at times of extreme demand discourages overconsumption. Peo- ple consider their purchases more carefully.
Instead of buying a dozen batteries (or bot- tles of water or gallons of gas), perhaps they buy half that. The result is that goods under extreme demand are available to more
customers. The market process actually results in a more equitable distribution than the anti-gouging laws.
Once we understand this, it’s easy to see that merchants aren’t really profiting from disaster. They are profiting from managing their prices, which has the socially beneficial effect of broadening distribution and discouraging hoarding. In short, they are being justly rewarded for performing an important public service.
One objection is that a system of free- floating, legal gouging would allow the wealthy to buy everything and leave the poor out altogether.
But this concern is overrated. For the most part, price hikes during disasters do not actually put necessary goods and services out of reach of even the poorest people. They just put the budgets of the poor under additional strain. This is a prob- lem better resolved through transfer payments to alleviate the household budgetary effects of the prices after the fact, rather than trying to control the price in the first place….
Instead of cracking down on price goug- ers, we should be using our experience of shortages during this time of crisis to spark a reform of our counter-productive laws. Next time disaster strikes, we should hope for a bit more gouging and a lot fewer empty store shelves. ■
M. UNAL OZMEN/SHUTTERSTOCK.COM
Would you pay $4 for this?
CHAPTER QuickQuiz
1. A change in which of the following will NOT shift the demand curve for hamburgers?
a. the price of hot dogs b. the price of hamburgers c. the price of hamburger buns d. the income of hamburger consumers
2. An increase in ________ will cause a movement along a given demand curve, which is called a change in ________.
a. supply, demand
b. supply, quantity demanded c. demand, supply
d. demand, quantity supplied
3. Movie tickets and film streaming services are substitutes. If the price of film streaming increases, what happens in the market for movie tickets?
a. The supply curve shifts to the left.
b. The supply curve shifts to the right.
c. The demand curve shifts to the left.
d. The demand curve shifts to the right.
4. The discovery of a large new reserve of crude oil will shift the ________ curve for gasoline, leading to a ________ equilibrium price.
a. supply, higher b. supply, lower c. demand, higher d. demand, lower
5. If the economy goes into a recession and incomes fall, what happens in the markets for inferior goods?
a. Prices and quantities both rise.
b. Prices and quantities both fall.
c. Prices rise and quantities fall.
d. Prices fall and quantities rise.
6. Which of the following might lead to an increase in the equilibrium price of jelly and a decrease in the equilibrium quantity of jelly sold?
a. an increase in the price of peanut better, a complement to jelly
b. an increase in the price of Marshmallow Fluff, a substitute for jelly
c. an increase in the price of grapes, an input into jelly d. an increase in consumers’ incomes,
as long as jelly is a normal good
SUMMARY
r Economists use the model of supply and demand to analyze competitive markets. In a competitive market, there are many buyers and sellers, each of whom has little or no influence on the market price.
r The demand curve shows how the quantity of a good demanded depends on the price. According to the law of demand, as the price of a good falls, the quantity demanded rises. Therefore, the demand curve slopes downward.
r In addition to price, other determinants of how much consumers want to buy include income, the prices of substitutes and complements, tastes, expectations, and the number of buyers. If one of these factors changes, the demand curve shifts.
r The supply curve shows how the quantity of a good supplied depends on the price. According to the law of supply, as the price of a good rises, the quantity sup- plied rises. Therefore, the supply curve slopes upward.
r In addition to price, other determinants of how much producers want to sell include input prices, technol- ogy, expectations, and the number of sellers. If one of these factors changes, the supply curve shifts.
r The intersection of the supply and demand curves determines the market equilibrium. At the equilibrium
price, the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied.
r The behavior of buyers and sellers naturally drives markets toward their equilibrium. When the market price is above the equilibrium price, there is a sur- plus of the good, which causes the market price to fall. When the market price is below the equilibrium price, there is a shortage, which causes the market price to rise.
r To analyze how any event influences a market, we use the supply-and-demand diagram to examine how the event affects the equilibrium price and quantity. To do this, we follow three steps. First, we decide whether the event shifts the supply curve or the demand curve (or both). Second, we decide in which direction the curve shifts. Third, we compare the new equilibrium with the initial equilibrium.
r In market economies, prices are the signals that guide economic decisions and thereby allocate scarce resources. For every good in the economy, the price ensures that supply and demand are in balance. The equilibrium price then determines how much of the good buyers choose to consume and how much sellers choose to produce.
KEY CONCEPTS
market, p. 66
competitive market, p. 66 quantity demanded, p. 67 law of demand, p. 67 demand schedule, p. 67 demand curve, p. 68 normal good, p. 70
inferior good, p. 70 substitutes, p. 70 complements, p. 70 quantity supplied, p. 73 law of supply, p. 73 supply schedule, p. 73 supply curve, p. 74
equilibrium, p. 76 equilibrium price, p. 76 equilibrium quantity, p. 76 surplus, p. 77
shortage, p. 77
law of supply and demand, p. 78
1. What is a competitive market? Briefly describe a type of market that is not perfectly competitive.
2. What are the demand schedule and the demand curve, and how are they related? Why does the demand curve slope downward?
3. Does a change in consumers’ tastes lead to a movement along the demand curve or to a shift in the demand curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the demand curve or to a shift in the demand curve? Explain your answers.
4. Harry’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more pumpkin juice. Is pumpkin juice an inferior or a nor- mal good? What happens to Harry’s demand curve for pumpkin juice?
5. What are the supply schedule and the supply curve, and how are they related? Why does the supply curve slope upward?
6. Does a change in producers’ technology lead to a movement along the supply curve or to a shift in the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a move- ment along the supply curve or to a shift in the supply curve?
7. Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market toward its equilibrium.
8. Beer and pizza are complements because they are often enjoyed together. When the price of beer rises, what happens to the supply, demand, quantity sup- plied, quantity demanded, and price in the market for pizza?
9. Describe the role of prices in market economies.
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
PROBLEMS AND APPLICATIONS
1. Explain each of the following statements using supply-and-demand diagrams.
a. “When a cold snap hits Florida, the price of orange juice rises in supermarkets throughout the country.”
b. “When the weather turns warm in New England every summer, the price of hotel rooms in Caribbean resorts plummets.”
c. “When a war breaks out in the Middle East, the price of gasoline rises and the price of a used Cadillac falls.”
2. “An increase in the demand for notebooks raises the quantity of notebooks demanded but not the quantity supplied.” Is this statement true or false? Explain.
3. Consider the market for minivans. For each of the events listed here, identify which of the determinants of demand or supply are affected. Also indicate whether demand or supply increases or decreases.
Then draw a diagram to show the effect on the price and quantity of minivans.
a. People decide to have more children.
b. A strike by steelworkers raises steel prices.
c. Engineers develop new automated machinery for the production of minivans.
d. The price of sports utility vehicles rises.
e. A stock market crash lowers people’s wealth.
4. Consider the markets for film streaming services, TV screens, and tickets at movie theaters.
a. For each pair, identify whether they are complements or substitutes:
r Film streaming and TV screens r Film streaming and movie tickets r TV screens and movie tickets
b. Suppose a technological advance reduces the cost of manufacturing TV screens. Draw a diagram to show what happens in the market for TV screens.
c. Draw two more diagrams to show how the change in the market for TV screens affects the markets for film streaming and movie tickets.
5. Over the past 40 years, technological advances have reduced the cost of computer chips. How do you think this has affected the market for computers?
For computer software? For typewriters?
6. Using supply-and-demand diagrams, show the effect of the following events on the market for sweatshirts.
a. A hurricane in South Carolina damages the cotton crop.
b. The price of leather jackets falls.
c. All colleges require morning exercise in appropriate attire.
d. New knitting machines are invented.
7. Ketchup is a complement (as well as a condiment) for hot dogs. If the price of hot dogs rises, what happens in the market for ketchup? For tomatoes? For tomato juice? For orange juice?
8. The market for pizza has the following demand and supply schedules:
Price Quantity Demanded Quantity Supplied
$4 135 pizzas 26 pizzas
5 104 53
6 81 81
7 68 98
8 53 110
9 39 121
a. Graph the demand and supply curves. What are the equilibrium price and quantity in this market?
b. If the actual price in this market were above the equilibrium price, what would drive the market toward the equilibrium?
c. If the actual price in this market were below the equilibrium price, what would drive the market toward the equilibrium?
9. Consider the following events: Scientists reveal that eating oranges decreases the risk of diabetes, and at the same time, farmers use a new fertilizer that makes orange trees produce more oranges. Illustrate and explain what effect these changes have on the equilibrium price and quantity of oranges.
10. Because bagels and cream cheese are often eaten together, they are complements.
a. We observe that both the equilibrium price of cream cheese and the equilibrium quantity of bagels have risen. What could be responsible for this pattern—a fall in the price of flour or a fall in the price of milk?
Illustrate and explain your answer.
b. Suppose instead that the equilibrium price of cream cheese has risen but the equilibrium quantity of bagels has fallen. What could be
responsible for this pattern—a rise in the price of flour or a rise in the price of milk? Illustrate and explain your answer.
11. Suppose that the price of basketball tickets at your college is determined by market forces. Currently, the demand and supply schedules are as follows:
Price Quantity Demanded Quantity Supplied
$4 10,000 tickets 8,000 tickets
8 8,000 8,000
12 6,000 8,000
16 4,000 8,000
20 2,000 8,000
a. Draw the demand and supply curves. What is unusual about this supply curve? Why might this be true?
b. What are the equilibrium price and quantity of tickets?
c. Your college plans to increase total enrollment next year by 5,000 students. The additional stu- dents will have the following demand schedule:
Price Quantity Demanded
$4 4,000 tickets
8 3,000
12 2,000
16 1,000
20 0
Now add the old demand schedule and the demand schedule for the new students to calculate the new demand schedule for the entire college. What will be the new equilibrium price and quantity?
To find additional study resources, visit cengagebrain.com, and search for “Mankiw.”
CHAPTER
5
Elasticity and Its Application
I
magine that some event drives up the price of gasoline in the United States. It could be a war in the Middle East that disrupts the world supply of oil, a boom- ing Chinese economy that boosts the world demand for oil, or a new tax on gaso- line passed by Congress. How would U.S. consumers respond to the higher price?It is easy to answer this question in a broad fashion: Consumers would buy less. This conclusion follows from the law of demand, which we learned in the previous chapter. But you might want a precise answer. By how much would con- sumption of gasoline fall? This question can be answered using a concept called elasticity, which we develop in this chapter.
Elasticity is a measure of how much buyers and sellers respond to changes in market conditions. When studying how some event or policy affects a market, we can discuss not only the direction of the effects but also their magnitude. Elasticity is useful in many applications, as we see toward the end of this chapter.
Before proceeding, however, you might be curious about the answer to the gasoline question. Many studies have examined consumers’ response to changes in gasoline prices, and they typically find that the quantity demanded responds more in the long run than it does in the short run. A 10 percent increase in gaso- line prices reduces gasoline consumption by about 2.5 percent after a year and by about 6 percent after 5 years. About half of the long-run reduction in quantity demanded arises because people drive less, and half arises because they switch to more fuel-efficient cars. Both responses are reflected in the demand curve and its elasticity.