REPUBLIC O F CHINA*
2. Recent Trends in the Development of Higher Education 1. Readjustment of the Proportions of Various Sectors of
66
Reform of Higher Education in ChinaTable 4 Enrolment of Higher Educational Institutions for Adults and Number of
Graduates*
Year 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965
Enrolment 0.1 0.4 1.6 4.1 10 13 16 64 76 150 300 793 410 404 418 445 413
N u m b e r of Graduates
— —
—
1.7 2.4 3.0 1.3 3.1 5 4 8 18 36 33 43 42Year 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983
Enrolment 17 146 214 729 2,629**
1,739 1,408 1,722 1,554 1,346 1,173 1,128
N u m b e r of Graduates
443 6 6 38 357 620 510 321 336 315 425 235
* The numbers of graduates include students w h o finished one or two courses only.
* The highly inflated figures for 1976 and several succeeding years reflect the proliferation of July 21 universities during those years.
1.4. Additional Statistical Information
Table 5 (page. 74) portrays the Basic Statistics of Regular Higher Education Institutions, and Table 6 (page. 75) portrays Public Expenditure on Education for 1950 — 1982. Both tables are taken from a forthcoming publication entitled,
"Achievement of Education in China — Statistics 1949-1983", a bilingual edition published by the People's Education Press.
The data on public expenditure for education do not include the outlays for capital investment. In recent years, a vast amount of resources has been allocated to capital investment in new buildings so as to keep pace with the expansion of higher education. During the six year period, 1978-1983, 5,473 million yuan were spent on capital investment, an average of 912 million yuan per year.
2. Recent Trends in the Development of Higher Education
H. Shiqi
67
ed in the humanities and the social sciences (including management) is too small to satisfy the needs of the national economy. Steps have to be taken to expand the training of students in these fields. Since engineering students are relatively abundant, w e are considering the possibility and the expediency of diverting a significant portion of engineering graduates to undergo further training in m a n a g e m e n t sciences so as to close the gap as soon as possible.
Imbalances a m o n g different sub-fields that m u s t be corrected also exist in each major field. For example, within engineering, various branches of light industry need to be given greater attention. Within medicine, too few dentists are being trained to meet the needs of the health service.
2.2. Speeding vp the Development of Short-cycle Higher Education If w e analyze the composition of tertiary education enrolments for 1983 (1,206,823) b y level, w e find that 929,319 or 7 7 % are enrolled in normal, 4 - 5 year courses, and 217,504, or 2 3 % , in short-cycle, 2—3 year courses. A sizable portion of the latter are enrolled in teacher training programmes, while in engineering and in agriculture, short-cycle enrolments are relatively insigni- ficant as exemplified b y the following data.
B r e a k d o w n of Tertiary Education Enrolment by Level in Selected Fields Duration
of Study 4—5 years 2—3 years
Total
929,319 217,504
Engineering
369,524 49,021
Agriculture
56,117 11,834
Teacher Training 155,791 157,549
T h e consensus both inside and outside academia is that short-cycle higher education should be vigorously developed in such fields as engineering, agri- culture, economics, and law. A n u m b e r of inquiries have been m a d e over the years which show that there are m a n y positions in each major field of employ- m e n t which can be satisfactorily filled with people having had 2 to 3 years of training and that the skills of m a n y graduates of the 4 to 5 year courses are underutilized. A rise in the proportion of short-cycle students in the total col- lege student population will not only increase the output of tertiary education but also effect greater economy in the operation of the educational enterprise.
Similar inquiries m a d e abroad also point to the s a m e conclusion. For example, a recent Unesco publication entitled "Engineering Technicians: S o m e Problems of Nomenclature and Classification" argues strongly that there is a legitimate place for the senior technician or engineer-technician in the technical m a n p o w e r which stands between university-level engineeers and technicians and should be moie practically oriented in his training than the university-level engineer.
68
Reform of Higher Education in ChinaIt is not out of place to indicate at this point that the s a m e reasoning applies to the imperative need for accelerating the development of specialized secondary education in China. Inadequate outputs of technicians a n d of senior technicians lead to shortages of support personnel in various fields of h u m a n endeavour a n d the frustration of m a n y college graduates w h o s e skills are not fully utilized.
Another development relating to this question is the emergence of m o r e than 5 0 short-cycle (usually t w o year) vocational universities in a n u m b e r of large a n d medium-sized cities during the past few years. T h e y are referred to as 'polytechnics' in W o r l d B a n k d o c u m e n t s , a n d their development has been aided financially b y this organization. T h e y h a v e the following c o m m o n features :
1) T h e courses offered are closely related to local needs for qualified m a n - p o w e r . Their offerings include courses for training secretaries, accountants, etc.
2) A s graduates will not be assigned jobs b y the state u p o n graduation, students are motivated to w o r k particularly hard.
3) T h e students are local residents w h o live at h o m e ; thus, the schools need not provide dormitories for t h e m . A sizable n u m b e r of their instructional staff m e m b e r s are d r a w n from local universities a n d colleges a n d w o r k part- time. B o t h features serve to lower the costs of operations.
4) Since m a n y of these schools are located in medium-sized developing industrial centres, their establishment improves the geographical location of higher education institutions.
A s of the end of 1983, 52 such short-cycle vocational universities have been set u p ; the 53rd one is n o w being set u p in Yantai, a seaport o n the northern part of the S h a n d o n g Peninsula.
2.3. New Departures in College Admissions
A system of unified national college entrance examinations, which w a s functioning in the early 1950's a n d abolished during the Cultural Bevolution w a s reinstituted in 1977. Generally speaking, this system has served the purpose of allocating the academically qualified secondary school graduates to various institutions according to their merits a n d aspirations. H o w e v e r , a n u m b e r of its shortcomings h a v e d r a w n sharp criticisms from various social circles. T h e m o r e important ones are as follows:
1) T h e selection procedure overemphasizes the results of o n e set of e x a m - inations without taking account of the school records of the applicants. T h u s , rote-learning rather t h a n creative a n d independent thinking m a y b e encouraged with detrimental effects o n teaching a n d learning in schools. T h e competition for college places has disrupted the n o r m a l a n d healthy functioning of school life, a n d school w o r k has b e c o m e excessively examination-oriented.
2) M a n y students m a k e their decisions regarding the selection of preferred institutions or specialities purely o n the basis of better chances of being admitted
H. Shiqi
69
rather than the perceived needs of society or personal aspirations a n d inclina- tions. School leavers deliberately avoid m a n y kinds of jobs, including occupa- tions in agriculture, forestry, mining, geological prospecting, a n d teaching.
E v e n such disciplines as aeronautics, astronautics, a n d nuclear engineering, which attracted the best m i n d s in the 1950's, are n o longer considered attractive today.
In J a n u a r y , 1983, a national conference o n college admissions w a s convened in K u n m i n g , Y u n n a n , to discuss these burning issues. T h e decision w a s m a d e that teachers colleges a n d colleges of agriculture, forestry, a n d medicine should lower their entrance requirements for rural applicants a n d those willing to w o r k in rural areas after graduation. This decision w a s in line with a n important d o c u m e n t promulgated earlier in 1983 b y the Central C o m m i t t e e of the Chinese C o m m u n i s t Party entitled: " S o m e Issues of Current Rural E c o n o m i c Policies".
It requires higher education institutions a n d specialized secondary schools w h i c h prepare personnel for the countryside to adopt n e w m e t h o d s of admis- sion a n d job assignment which favour the settlement of graduates in the countryside.
L o w e r examination standards will also b e permitted for m o d e l workers with over 3 years of experience.
Rules for conducting medical examinations h a v e been revised to r e m o v e the obstacles that prevent the admission of physically handicapped candidates with high scholastic achievements a n d moral qualities.
T h e following are the guidelines for the further reform of the college a d m i s - sions system. R e f o r m s should b e :
1) conducive to the training of expert personnel suitable for the needs of socialist modernization ;
2) conducive to healthy development, reform, a n d raised standards in primary a n d secondary education ;
3) conducive to social stability a n d unity a n d to the development of a good social atmosphere ;
4) conducive to the unobstructed flow of graduates to wherever their skills are badly needed, including rural areas, economically b a c k w a r d outlying regions, as well as m e d i u m a n d small-sized enterprises.
2 . 5 . Higher Education Institutions Will Enjoy Greater Autonomy in Decision- making
During the past few years, m u c h has been said at various educational con- ferences a n d in the press, about the imperative need for granting greater a u t o n o m y to the universities in the matter of decisiod-making. This problem is compli- cated b y the fact that m a n y shackles a n d fetters derived from existing regula- tions h a v e not been the creations of the educational department, but those of the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of L a b o u r a n d Personnel, the State Plan-
70
Reform of Higher Education in Chinaning Commission, a n d other governmental agencies. Within an institution, it is also necessary to extend decision-making powers to lower levels so as to attain high efficiency in m a n a g e m e n t .
It is encouraging that several universities h a v e been pioneers in exploring w a y s to improve administration, to promote mobility in their personnel, a n d to improve the remuneration of their staffs b y m e a n s of their o w n earnings.
Three m u c h publicized pioneers are Shanghai Jiaotong University, China University of Science a n d Technology, a n d Beijing Technological University.
Their experiences were highly c o m m e n d e d in Premier Zhao's Report o n the W o r k of the G o v e r n m e n t (delivered at the Second Session of the Sixth National People's Congress o n M a y 1 5 , 1984). A t the time of this writing, the Ministry of Education is convening a meeting in Shanghai, with participants from 18 universities a n d colleges, to discuss w a y s of pushing reforms forward along these lines. F r o m the experience so far gained a n d the dominant opinions heard, it seems obvious that the following issues will be dealt with:
1) T h a t of giving individual institutions the p o w e r to enroll students b e y o n d the n u m b e r s provided for in the state plan (conditions permitting) b y permitting them, to sign agreements with other governmental agencies, enterprises, and collective units. T h e institutions in question will be permitted to accept financial aid for capital investment a n d operating expenses.
2) T h a t of giving the presidents, vice presidents (or directors, deputy direc- tors) of schools exclusive powers to select a n d to appoint their subordinate staff m e m b e r s , a n d to determine the administrative structures of the schools. T h e y will be e m p o w e r e d to recruit teaching staff m e m b e r s a n d other employees and to r e m o v e incompetent personnel from their posts.
3) T h a t of granting the institutions greater a u t o n o m y in the allocation of financial resources. A total of 6 0 % of the President's or Director's F u n d s (built u p through the school's o w n earnings) will be used for the i m p r o v e m e n t or the construction of physical facilities, while 4 0 % will be used for job subsi- dies, bonuses, collective welfare, and even reform in salaries a n d wages.
4) T h a t of granting individual institutions greater power in the allocation of capital investment, subject to the limit set b y the approved overall plan.
5) T h a t of giving the institutions greater say in the assignment of jobs to their graduates a n d of encouraging t h e m to forge direct links with units which are in need of their graduates.
2.6. Expanding International Exchanges
Since the downfall of the G a n g of Four, the Chinese G o v e r n m e n t has consistently followed a policy of being open to the outside world a n d has encour- aged scientific a n d cultural exchanges with other countiies.
1) Exchanges of students a n d scholars
B e t w e e n 1978 a n d 1983, 18,500 Chinese students supported b y the state have been sent abroad, a n d since 1978, about 7,000 students, including visiting
H. Shiqi
71
scholars, postgraduate students, trainees, a n d personnel attending short-term courses, h a v e finished their education abroad a n d h a v e returned h o m e .
W o r l d B a n k loans, scholarhips, a n d fellowships a w a r d e d b y foreign govern- m e n t s , private foundations, educational institutions, international agencies, etc., also serve to support m a n y Chinese students a n d scholars abroad. In addi- tion, b y the e n d of 1 9 8 3 , a total of 7,000 self-supported students h a d gone abroad.
O n the whole, Chinese students a n d scholars w h o h a v e studied abroad h a v e earned g o o d repute b y theii hard w o r k a n d achievements.
B e t w e e n 1978 a n d 1983, m o r e than 6,000 foreign students from 1 0 2 coun- tries were enrolled in over 5 0 Chinese universities a n d colleges. T h e duration of their studies ranges from 2 to 5 years. In addition, in 1983 alone, over 3,500 foreign students from m o r e than 2 0 countries were enrolled in short courses offered b y Chinese institutions of higher learning.
2) Establishment of direct contacts between sister institutions
B y the end of 1983, over 1 0 0 Chinese institutions of higher learning h a v e signed agreements with over 2 0 0 foreign institutions of higher learning. S u c h agreements h a v e been instrumental in promoting exchanges of delegations, undergraduate a n d postgraduate students, visiting lecturers, publications, a n d the execution of joint research projects.
3) E x c h a n g e of official delegations
B e t w e e n 1978 a n d 1983, 3 3 5 Chinese educational delegations were hosted b y foreign governmental agencies a n d educational institutions, a n d , in the m e a n t i m e , the Chinese side received 4 4 9 foreign delegations.
4) Attendance at international conferences
B e t w e e n 1979 a n d 1983, 1,268 scientists a n d scholars (some of w h o m are counted m o r e than once in the global figure) from institutions under the direct jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education alone attended 561 international con- ferences.
5) Participation in activities sponsored b y Unesco a n d other international agencies
6) Promotion of co-operative research efforts
The Chinese Ministry of Education has been promoting joint research pro- jects to be conducted by Chinese and American scientists and joint seminars to be attended by scholars from both countries as well as by other countries, from time to time, through an official agreement made with the National Science Foundation of the United States.
Other official agreements have been signed by the Ministry of Education with foreign organizations, such as the German Research Association, the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science, etc. But their scope of activi- ties is still limited to exchanges of scholars and has not yet extended to the conduct of joint research projects or of joint seminars.
72
Reform of Higher Education in ChinaConcluding R e m a r k s
Since China is a socialist country, the Chinese C o m m u n i s t Party and the G o v e r n m e n t have always stressed the importance of socialist orientation in guiding the development of education, science, a n d culture. It is not out of place here to m a k e reference to the general educational policy: "to enable every- one w h o receives a n education to develop morally, intellectually, a n d physically and b e c o m e a worker with both socialist consciousness and culture, or in other words, a qualified person w h o is both red a n d expert". T h e integration of edu- cation and productive labour and the integration of intellectuals with workers and peasants are also essential components of the general educational policy.
D e n g Xiaoping recently stressed that education should be oriented towards the needs of modernization and to the future, a n d should help nurture globally- m i n d e d citizes. His remarks have given impetus to very lively discussions a m o n g educational circles throughout the country. It is yet premature to expound o n their full implications for educational development a n d reform in China. A n y - w a y , I a m sure, they will have very beneficial effects o n promoting international exchanges and a healthy interdependence between different nations in their quest for a safer, better, and brighter world — the central t h e m e of the V t h W o r l d Congress of Comparative Education.
Postscripts
In this paper the author has d r a w n freely u p o n his earlier writings: (1)
"Education in China: T h e Past Five Years", a report prepared in August, 1983, for Unesco o n behalf of the Chinese Ministry of Education, a n d (2)
"Higher Education in China: T h e Past Five Y e a r s " , a paper presented at the Beijing International Conference on Science & Technology Policy and Research M a n a g e m e n , 4 to 8 October, 1983.
T h e statistical information given here has been d r a w n from official sources.
A s mentioned earlier in the text, a publication entitled " A c h i e v e m e n t of Education in China — Statistics 1949-1983", a bilingual edition (Chinese- English), is forthcoming. T h e publisher is People's Education Press.
T h e following are several significant publications indispensable for re- searchers o n higher education in C h i n a :
1) The Chronicle of Education in the People's Republic of China, 1949—1982, edited b y the Central Institute for Educational Research a n d recently publish- ed b y the Pedagogical Science Press, Beijing.
2) Yearbook of Education in China, which covers the ground from 1949 to the end of 1981 or m i d - 1 9 8 2 , to b e published soon b y the China E n c y - clopedia Press.
3) Directory of Chinese Higher Education Institutions, which gives fairly complete descriptions of each of the 675 higher education institutions as of October, 1980, including a brief history a n d listing of courses offered, p u b - lished b y the Pedagogical Science Press in 1 9 8 2 .
H. Shiqi 73
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74 Reform of Higher Education in China
Table .5