significant difference. It was found that there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students as shown in table 3. The f-cal is 2.477, the P-value is .121, which is greater than 0.05 level of significance.
The result obtained in this study is in line with the work of Okebukola (1993). He noted that CMIS is effective teaching strategy. He used the strategy to teach Ecology and Genetics in Senior Secondary School and noted that it greatly enhanced students’ achievement. The finding is also in line with the finding of Asiyal (2005) who noted that CMIS promotes meaningful learning. He used it to teach chemistry in senior secondary school and it enhanced the students’ achievement greatly. The finding is also in line with the work of Duru (2008).
Duru used it to teach biology in senior secondary school and noted that both male and female performed well in biology achievement test. The result obtained in this study is as a result of concept mapping instructional strategy combined with lecture method which enabled deeper understanding of concepts in students and thus enhanced their achievement in BSAT. The performance of male and female students is based on the fact that CMIS is gender friendly and therefore enhanced the participation and achievement of students in basic science.
With regard to research question 2 and hypotheses 2, the result of the study revealed that male and female students in experimental group 2 taught basic science using Mnemonic skills combined with lecture method performed well in the post test. The female had mean score of 69.86 which is greater than that of male 69.26. The standard deviation scores of males and females are 2.89 and 302 respectively showing that some students had scores closer to the mean. The mean difference is 0.6 which was tested for significant difference. The result revealed that there is no significant difference between the mean achievement score of male and female in the post-test. The value of f-cal is 1.804, and P-value is .185 which is greater than 0.05 level of significance. (See table 5).
The finding is in line with the work of Santrock (2004) and Duru (2017). Santrock found that Mnemonic skill strategy is effective in helping students improve their memory. Duru found that Mnemonic skill strategy is one of the effective study strategies for improving students’ memory for academic excellence. Duru stated that Mnemonic skills strategy is gender friendly. Santrock stated that Mnemonic strategy is of various types and can be used to teach male and female students any subject that involves use of Mnemonics skill to enhance students understanding and memory. The finding is an indication that Mnemonics is not gender biased; rather it supports students’ participation in class. Therefore the finding is on the side of the proposal that demands equal opportunity for both male and female in education and in science classes by advocates of gender equity.
Based on the findings, the researcher made the following recommendations:
(1) Basic science teachers should adopt concept mapping strategy and Mnemonics in teaching students so as to promote gender equity in science classes and help girls to achieve their learning objectives.
(2) Secondary Education Management Board (SEMB) and State Universal basic Education Board (SUBEB) should organize orientation or awareness workshop for appropriate use of concept mapping strategy and Mnemonics strategy for all science teachers in secondary schools.
References
Agulanna, G.G. (2006). Barriers to academic leadership for Nigeria female teachers. WOREC Journal of gender studies. Imo-State University, Owerri.
Assiyal R.I. (2005). Enhancing chemistry teaching in secondary schools through concept mapping instructional strategy. Proceedings of the 46th Annual conference of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN) Ibadan: Heinemann Plc.
Duru V.N. (2008). Enhancing meaningful learning of Biology through the use of concept maps. African Journal of Allied Education. Enugu, Department of Educational Foundation. Enugu State University of Science and Technology 2(1) 85-100.
Duru V.N. (2016). Curriculum Studies; Concepts, Development and Implementation (2nd Ed.) Owerri. ALVAN Global Publications.
Duru V.N. (2018). Enhancing female students achievement in basic science with gender responsive programme for girls. Inter-Disciplinary Journal of Gender and Women Development Studies for Gender Studies Association of Nigeria GSAN 1(2) 13-22. ALVAN Owerri.
Duru V.N. (2017). Effective study for Academic Excellence. Owerri Alvan Global Publications.
Novak J.D. (1990). Concept mapping: A useful tool for science education. Journal of Educational Measurement.
Santrock J.W. (2004). Educational Psychology (2nd Ed.) New York McGraw, Hill Higher Education 12, 64-85.
Okebukola P.A.O. (1993). Access, retention and attention as key issues in attainment of education for all in Nigeria. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 20(3) 230-250.
COMPOSITE CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT By
Dr. Ziaur Rahman Abstract
Business is one of the most dominant sectors of the present world and management is part of its ideology. Thus, the term management has drawn the attention of all due to its influence on the economy. The paths of leadership and management function run together for most of the career journeys, but the concept of leadership development has to be retained due to its arguably wider and deeper than the concept of management. In fact, leadership and management are overlapping concepts. The balance of leadership and management skills reflects critical yet a rare combination that can lead to greater success. Perhaps, it is the reason why today’s world has become so much concerned to develop a composite concept of leadership and management. In the quest for such a composite concept, this study focuses on all the concepts starting from Greek philosophy, but none could guarantee success in every situation. Finally, the study has found a leadership trait which is innately embedded with management concept that is worthy in managing any modern organization. This composite concept has made the most influential leader of human history supremely successful in leading and managing an empire stretching from the border of India to the Atlantic Ocean-the largest empire that the world has yet seen.
Introduction and Main Idea
Our experience shows that a good leader has also managed well. Then the question arises, does the good leader require attaining any other extra managerial trait to perform as a good manager? If the answer is ‘not required’ i.e. a good leader does not need any separate managerial trait to perform as good manager, and most of the successful manager also does not need any different human attribute to lead their organization well.
This indicates that the performance of a good leader and a manager is auto-generated or one is embedded in the other. It reveals the idea that a human acquiring certain attributes of leadership or management that will contribute to pursuit one field from the other -a composite concept of leadership and management.
The composite concept is an idea of a human personality trait that will enable a leader or a manager to perform their responsibility equally good without any shortfall on the other.
This study will endeavor to identify any probable concept or a human trait (virtue), which may facilitate a manager to operate the functions of management entirely, and at the same time leading to being successful.
The composite concept speaks about the introduction of any trait (virtue) in a person which will enable him to perform equally good in both the fields as a leader and a manager with no new addition.
In the past, no successful leaders had to depend on anyone else to manage their affairs and no good managers were depended on anyone else in leading their organization’s success as a manager. Dr. Mahathir’s wise leadership, dynamism, and foresight have been a tremendous source of inspiration for all Malaysians, who ensured economic growth and shared prosperity. In the process of leading his focus on managing the state-organization was not obscure. He also managed the state organization very efficiently. There are many leaders like him that we can find who lead their state and their vision was never blurred in managing the state organization successfully.
Just as, academics and historians consider Franklin D Roosevelt as one of the greatest US presidents, ranking him alongside the likes of George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, and Thomas Jefferson. United States Presidency Center voted him the best American president overall in 2011. Roosevelt guided the US through the Great Depression of the 1930s and most of World War II. He is also the only president to serve more than two consecutive terms in office – managing a state organization very successfully.
In the sixth century of Arabs – like all other peoples at that time, not only buried the female infants alive but also pushed those who were spared to unspeakable misery and dejection. The women were treated as an
‘object of sale’; she was fully exploited by her father, and she could be sold in marriage to the highest bidder.
The husband was entitled to terminate the contract of marriage on any occasion and for their whim. Wine and women went together, and as a result of licentious drinking, fornication was very rampant. However, it was observed that under the leadership of Muhammad (PBUH) brought about a revolution of peace and justice in the Arabian Peninsula. A Non-Muslim researcher’s words (Michel H. Hart, The Hundreds,35) can be put as evidence of it where he says,
"These Bedouin tribesmen, inspired by the word of the Prophet, had carved out an empire stretching from the border of India to the Atlantic Ocean-the largest empire that the world had yet seen."
A study of human history ranging from 3500 B.C. until the year 1970 concluded with the remark that,
“He (Muhammad) may well rank as the most influential political leader of all times.” Along with high-value leadership quality, the functions of modern management were also evident in his system, though he was unlettered, having no sign of management education.
Therefore, successful leaders and managers were inborn with some attribute which independently help them to do good in their affairs of leading and managing well. Thus, confirms that once someone is a good leader, he will be automatically performing the functions of a good manager and similar is the case with a good manager.
So, it appears that there is a composite concept embedded in human that may enable to be independently good in leading and managing the affairs as a good leader and manager. Thus, many scholars have already mentioned that management is an overlapping concept of leadership.
Not only most leaders have a mix of skills that match the demands of the situation, but the potential leader often needs to be determined, courageous, and persistent enough to bring those skills to bear against the opposition. These characteristics are better thought of as personality traits that can be identified but are not easily delivered through training. Without the right traits, a potential leader may succumb to the challenges at hand. All successful leaders demonstrated these traits although at different times and in different ways.
This gives the idea that the concept of leadership has to be retained first in order to search for a composite concept because the concept of leadership reflects wider and deeper than the concept of management. So, in search of a composite concept, the study will endeavor to find a successful leadership trait (virtue) that is innately
Leadership
Management
embedded with any management concept that may equally ensure success in managing the organization Research Methodology
This is qualitative research based on the theoretical approach to determine a composite concept of leadership and management. In the quest of finding a composite concept of leadership and management, this study focuses on all the conventional concepts starting from Greek philosophy including the study of Plato and Aristotle. But no composite concept of leadership and management was identified. Finally, a thematic survey on the most influential leaders of human history shows the existence of a leadership trait (virtue), and a vast extent of this trait also shows management function and its worthiness to be considered regardless of time, situation, and religion. It is also necessary to testify its worthiness in modern leadership and management situations.
Survey on Theories and Influential Leaders
The whole leadership and management (functions) are work of the human mind, though they may be assisted by modern technology. However, as humanity cannot be reduced to a science, and history and experience cannot be made to repeat itself in a predictable manner to test any concept which may guarantee success; thus, there is no definite formula for producing success. Though many researchers have come up with innumerable various laid-down doctrines, guidelines, procedures, theories, concepts, etc. In spite of all such voluminous documents, ultimate trust is placed on the human mind and the human mind can reach its excellence only when it is embedded with the idea, vision, and trait(virtue).Thus, in search of such human attributes of mind which can produce a composite concept this study conducted a survey on all the prominent theories, but no theories have offer any composite concept. Then the endeavor to search for the composite concept shifted its paradigm; from the theories towards the leaders, because such a concept may be prevalent among the most influential leaders of human history.
In order to find the most influential leader of human history since 3500 B.C. the problem faced is that each great leader had a unique personality; no two leaders are alike. Each leader has different kinds of strengths and weaknesses. Thus, it is extremely difficult to make a list in ranking them on any common profile. In such a diversified dimension of leaders, we find a list composed by Michel H. Hart based on the influence of leaders on human history since 3500 B.C. His compendium is solely involved to find the 100 persons who had the greatest effect on human history and the course of the world. He ranked 100 persons according to the total amount of influence that each of them had on human history and the everyday lives of the other human beings. In his study influence has been the sole criterion in ranking the individuals. So, this study will examine his list along with one additional criteria; that is, the leadership aspect of those influential persons he has listed. Thus, we will consider his list with a new viewpoint of leadership and influence on human history and the course of the world.
In the course of history, there has been a succession of great leaders, if you will -who set out to conquer the world and who achieved a considerable measure of success. The most notable(Michel H. Hart, The
Hundreds,141)of these leaders were Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Napoleon Bonaparte, and Adolf Hitler.
Why do all four of these men rank so high on this list? Each of these four leaders controlled such a large territory and population, and exerted such an enormous influence on the lives of their contemporaries, that they cannot be curtly dismissed as common bandits.
The compendium ranked Genghis Khan(1162-1227 A.D) to be higher than the other three. Partly, of course, because his influence extended over a larger territory than any of the others. More importantly, his influence
continued for a much longer time. Napoleon (1769-1821) and Hitler (1889-1945) were defeated in their own times and their conquest was short-lived. Though Alexander’s (356 B.C.-323 B.C.) armies were undefeated at his death, he had named no successor, after his death, his empire quickly broke up. Genghis Khan (died 1279), however, had organized his conquest so well, and his children and grandchildren were also able successors. By 1279, when Kublai Khan completed the conquest of China, the Mongols ruled the largest land (Michel H. Hart, The Hundreds, 141) empire in all of history. And Mongols continued to rule larger sections of Asia for centuries after Genghis’ death.
Had Christopher Columbus, Simon Bolivar, and Thomas Edison never lived, another person would have discovered America, liberate South America, and invented the electric light. But if Genghis Khan had never lived, it does not seem likely that anything close to the enormous Mongol conquest of the thirteenth century would have occurred. The Mongol tribes had never managed to unite again. Genghis Khan, therefore, appears to have been one of the true prime movers in human history.
People with a different viewpoint may have a different list. But in terms of the total amount of influence on human history and on the everyday lives of the other human beings Michel H. Hart ranked Muhammad (570- 632) higher over Genghis Khan. For selecting, Muhammad to lead the list may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he found in his study that Bedouin tribesmen of Arabia inspired by Muhammad embarked upon one of the most astonishing series of conquest in human history.
Figure: Showing the Territory of Mohammed and Arab Conquest
His conquest carved out an empire stretching from the borders of India to the Atlantic Ocean -the largest empire that the world had yet seen. The only comparable conquest in human history is those of Mongols in the thirteen century, which were primarily due to the influence of Genghis Khan. Genghis’ conquests, however, though more extensive than Mohammad of the Arabs, but it did not prove permanent, and today the only areas occupied by the Mongols are those that they held prior to the time of Genghis Khan.
It is different from Mohammad’s conquest is that everywhere his army conquered, large-scale conversion to the new faith eventually followed. Thus, from Iraq to Morocco, there extend a whole chain of Arab nations united not merely by the faith in Islam, but also by their Arabic language, history, and culture. Moreover,
the centrality of the unchanging Arabic Quran prevented break up the core ideological bondage of the faith preached by prophets, till today. Differences and divisions between these Arab states exist, of course, and they are considerable, but the partial disunity should not blind us to the important elements of unity that have continued to exist.
Today, thirteen centuries after his death, his influence is still powerful and pervasive. The influence of Mohammad’s conquest of the seven-century has continued to play an important role in history down to present days. Similar, kind of influence is also observed in the case of Jesus. He is the inspiration for the most influential religion in history. The impact of Jesus on human history is so obvious and so enormous that few people would question his placement near the top of this list.
Moreover, in sharp contrast to Muhammad, (Michel H. Hart, The Hundreds,49)who exercised political as well as a religious authority, Jesus had virtually no influence on political developments during his own lifetime.
Both, of course, had an enormous indirect influence on long-term political developments but Jesus made his influence felt entirely as an ethical and spiritual leader. In the case of Mohammad, (unlike Jesus) who led 27 campaigns and ruled a large territory as a state leader and he was supremely successful on both religious and secular levels. Thus, Michel H. Hart mentioned that:
“It is this unparalleled combination of secular and religious influence which I feel entitles Muhammad to be considered the most influential single figure in human history.”
Nothing similar had occurred before Muhammad, and there is no reason to believe that the conquest would have been achieved without him. Thus, this research agrees with the remarks of Michel H. Hart that:
He (Muhammad) was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular levels. He may well rank as the most influential political leader of all time.
This unlettered great leader had no education except the Quran. Visualizing the close association of Muhammad to the Quran and the trait Zikro-adder (Remembrance of Hereafter) i.e; Human sense of
accountability in Hereafter is the greatest leadership concept of the Quran. Thus, it appears that the leadership concept of Muhammad was Zikro-adder. Along with his excellent leadership skills, he also managed a state organization successfully. So, it is a matter of research to find out, whether any management concept is innately rooted in Zikro-adder or not. Zikro-adder reveals its indissoluble link with nine virtues (traits) of Quran (42:36- 43). Among these ones is “Who decides their affairs by mutual consultation (42:38)” is the phenomena that are applicable in teamwork. The leader who possesses the trait Zikro-adder will decide all his affairs in mutual consultation’ within a team or group.
Analysis of Management Function ‘Consult and Decide’
The prevailing four functions of Management are planning, organizing, leading and controlling. If we deeply look into the functions of a leader, we find that decision making is the most important function of a leader.
Decision making is the cornerstone of planning; (Ricky W. Griffin, Management, 206.)thus, it is clear that decision making is the catalyst that drives the entire planning process. Decision making engages the leader with