RESULTS
The majority of the participants were female (76%) and ranged in age from 18- 22-year-old. Most were white, non-Hispanic (81.9%), and African American (8.6%).
Approximately 93% were classified as sophomores, juniors, or seniors, majoring in health-related and business areas of study. The mean BMI for the sample was 25.87 (SD=5.98). According to the CDC, in BMI classifications, 2% of participants were underweight, 55% were of normal weight, 33% were overweight, and 15% were obese.
When asked about the disease in family members, 18.1% of the participants had first- degree relatives with either metabolic syndrome, prediabetes, or diabetes. In contrast, 49.5% of participants had second-degree relatives with either metabolic syndrome, prediabetes, or diabetes. See Table 1.
Table 1
Characteristics of the Participants (N= 105)
Variable Response n (%)
Gender Male
Female
29 (27.60) 76 (72.40)
Age 18-22
23-28
88 (83.70) 17 (16.30)
Class Freshmen
Sophomore Junior Senior Graduate
7 ( 6.70) 22 (21.00) 29 (27.60) 37 (35.20) 10 ( 9.50)
Major Health-Related
Business-Related Liberal Arts Education Engineering Aviation Other
69 (65.80) 24 (22.80) 2 ( 1.90) 1 ( 1.00) 5 ( 4.80) 2 ( 1.90) 2 ( 1.90)
BMI Category Underweight
Normal Overweight Obese
2 ( 2.00) 55 (55.00) 33 (33.00) 15 (15.00)
Race White, non-Hispanic
White, Hispanic
African American/Black Black, Hispanic Origin Asian
Middle Eastern Biracial
Missing
86 (81.90) 3 ( 2.90) 9 ( 8.60) 1 ( 1.00) 1 ( 1.00) 1 ( 1.00) 3 ( 2.90) 1 ( 1.00) First-Degree Relativea Yes
No
I do not know
19 (18.10) 82 (78.10) 4 ( 3.80) Second-Degree Relativea Yes
No Missing
52 (49.50) 0 ( 0.00) 21 (20.00)
a Relatives diagnosed with metabolic syndrome, prediabetes, or diabetes.
Bivariate correlations were conducted to explore the relationships between waist circumference, BMI A1c, and right handgrip strength. Waist circumference was
positively, significantly correlated with handgrip strength (r = 0.365, p < 0.01) and BMI (rº= 0.896, p < 0.01). Additionally, handgrip strength was positively correlated with BMI (rº= 0.283, p < 0.01).
A one-way ANOVA was conducted to compare A1c levels and right handgrip strength between BMI categories. There was a statistically significant difference found between the groups at the p < 0.05 level, [(2,102) = 4.66, p = 0.012] for A1c and [(2,102)
= 8.86, p = <0.01] for handgrip strength. The A1c levels for those in the normal weight, overweight and obese categories were M = 4.99 (SD = 0.52), M = 4.76 (SD = 0.43) and Mº= 5.19(SD = 0.32), respectively. The obese group had the highest mean A1c level. The
handgrip strength measure (pounds of pressure) for those in the normal weight,
overweight, and obese categories were M= 70.20 (SD = 19.32), M = 89.47 (SD = 26.13), M = 83.59 (SD = 18.63), respectively. Interestingly, the obese group showed a decrease
in the mean handgrip strength from the overweight group.
Regression analysis was conducted to test if food sources of Vitamin D servings per day, minutes of sun exposure per week, and right handgrip strength were predictors of A1c levels. Results were non-significant.
Slightly more than half of the participants consume milk daily; 21% consume ≤ ½ cup per day, while 13.3% consume two cups per day. Approximately half of the
participants consume yogurt daily. Of these participants, 26.7% consume ≤ ½ cup per day; 66.7% of participants consume one or two servings of other dairy products (i.e., cheese) per day. Nearly 85% of participants consume 0-1 servings of non-dairy milk
substitute products (i.e., almond or oat milk) per day. More than 50% of participants state they consume fish, but only 17% do so ≥ 3-times per week. See Table 2.
Table 2
Dietary Sources of Vitamin D (N=105)
Variable Response n (%)
Consumes milk daily Yes
No
55 (52.40) 50 (47.60) Amount of Milk/day ≤ ½ cup
1 cup 2 cups
≥ 3 cups
No daily milk intake
22 (21.00) 13 (12.40) 14 (13.30) 6 ( 5.70) 50 ( 47.60) Consumed yogurt daily Yes
No
47 (44.80) 58 (55.20) Amount of Yogurt/day ≤ ½ cup
1 cup 2 cups
≥ 3 cups Missing
28 (26.70) 19 (18.10) 0 ( 0.00) 0 ( 0.00) 58 (55.20) Other dairy products
consumed daily (including cheese)
0 serving 1-2 servings 3-4 servings Missing
18 (17.10) 70 (66.70) 11 (10.60) 6 ( 5.70) Milk & Milk Product
Substitutes Consumed daily
0-1 serving 1.5-2.5 servings
≥ 3 servings
89 (84.80) 14 (13.40) 2 ( 1.90)
Consumes Fish Yes
No
58 (55.20) 47 (44.80)
How Often ≤ 2x/wk
3-4x/ month 1-2x/month More seldom
1 ( 5.00) 17 (16.20) 24 (22.90) 12 (11.40)
To compare the difference between those who consumed the recommended three servings of dairy per day (from all sources) or more to those who did not, a t-test was
calculated for A1c, BMI, and waist circumference. Those consuming three or more servings per day (M = 31.04 inches, SD = 5.54) had a significantly smaller waist circumference measure than those who consumed less than three servings per day (Mº=º33.59, SD = 6.16), t(103) = -2.23, p = 0.028.
Of the 105 participants, 36.6% said they acquired a suntan during no more than 19 days in the last year, and 17.1% acquired a suntan during 20-40 days per year (see Table 3).
Table 3
Sun Exposure (N= 105)
Variable Response n (%)
Sun Tan/year 0-19 days
20-40 days 41-60 days
> 60 days Missing
38 (36.60) 18 (17.10) 3 ( 3.00) 10 ( 9.70) 36 (34.30) Use of Tanning Booth Yes
No
11 (10.50) 94 (89.50) Tanning Booth Usage/year 1-10
11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
7 (49.40) 1 ( 1.00) 0 ( 0.0) 1 ( 1.00) 2 ( 1.90) Average Sun Exposure in
last week
< 5 minutes per day 5-15 minutes 15-30 minutes
> 30 minutes
6 ( 5.70) 28 (26.70) 42 (40.00) 29 (27.60) Sunscreen use < 50% of the time
> 50% but < 80%
At least 80%
54 (51.40) 34 (32.40) 17 (16.20)
Approximately 10% reported using a tanning booth, and 49.4% use a tanning booth 1-10 times per year. Forty percent reported an average sun exposure of 15-20
minutes per week. Approximately half wear sunscreen less than 50% of the time. There was a non-significant correlation of -0.12 (p = n.s.) between HgA1c and average sun exposure each week.
Of the 105 participants, 45.7% take multivitamin/vitamins; 42% take 0-3 tablets per day. Of the participants taking multivitamin/vitamins, 24.8% report their
multivitamin contained Vitamin D, while 17.1% did not know whether their multivitamin contained Vitamin D. Approximately 13% of participants take Vitamin D as a single supplement; 7.6% take fish oil supplements, and of those cod liver or omega-three supplements were most frequently taken for 4-7 days (Table 4).
Table 4
Vitamin Intake (N= 105)
Variable Response n (%)
Multivitamin/vitamin intake
Yes No
48 (45.70) 57 (54.30) Multivitamin daily 0-3 tablets
4-7 tablets
> 8 tablets
44 (42.00) 2 ( 2.00) 2 ( 2.00) A multivitamin containing
Vitamin D
Yes No
I do not know
26 (24.80) 4 ( 3.80) 18 ( 17.10 Vitamin D as a single
supplement
Yes No
14 (13.30) 91 (86.70) Fish Oil Supplements Yes
No
8 ( 7.60) 97 (92.40) Cod Liver or Omega 3 per
week
1-3 days 4-7 days
1 ( 1.00) 7 ( 6.80)
Most participants did not smoke or use tobacco products (92.4%), while 16.2% of participants reported either regularly or sometimes vape. Of the 105 participants, 30.5%
spend 31 minutes to an hour each day doing some physical activity; 67.8% spend 1-30 minutes of their physical activity time outdoors. See Table 5.
Table 5
Smoking and Physical Activity (N= 105)
Variable Response n (%)
Smoking/Tobacco products Yes No
Sometimes
4 ( 3.80) 97 (92.40) 4 ( 3.80)
Vaping Yes
No
Sometimes
8 ( 7.60) 88 (83.80) 9 ( 8.60)
Physical activity 0-15 minutes
16-30 minutes 31 minutes-1 hour More than 1 hour None
17 (16.20) 31 (29.50) 32 (30.50) 24 (22.90) 1 ( 1.00) Physical activity performed
outside
1-30 minutes 31-60 minutes
> 60 minutes Missing
71 (67.80) 9 ( 8.70) 5 ( 4.90) 20 (19.00)
When self-reporting height and weight (Table 6), men report an extra 1.69 inches (SD = 0.92) for height and reduced weight of 1.06 pounds (SD = 3.67). Women reported an extra 1.18 inches (SD = 0.95) for height and were accurate for weight differing from their measured weight only by -0.96 pounds (SD = 4.18). There was a statistically significant difference between males and females for the difference in self-reported and measured height, t(101) = 2.46, p = 0.015, with males reporting additional height in inches in a greater amount than females.
Table 6
Difference in Self-Reported and Measured Height and Weight
Males N=29 Females N=76 t/(df) p Cohens
M SD M SD d
Height Differences (inches)
1.69 0.92 1.18 0.95 2.46 (101)* 0.015 0.54 Weight Differences
(pounds)
-1.06 3.67 -0.96 4.18 -0.12 (103) 0.910
*p > 0.05
29