REVIEW OF THE RELATED THEORIES A. The Concept of Reading Comprehension Skill
1. The Concept of Reading Comprehension Skill a. The Definition of Reading
There are some definitions of reading by some experts.
Firts, According to Crawley and Mountain state that reading is a process undertaken to reduce uncertainty about meanings a text conveys.3
Second, According to Hombly reading is the act of one who reads knowladge of books: the ways in which something is interpreted, while comprehension is the act of understanding.4
Third, According to Anderson et al. reading is the process of making meaning from written texts. It needs the harmony of a lot related sources of information.5
Fourth, According to Grabe reading as an interactive process between readers and texts that result in reading fluency.6
3 Dian Rakhmawati, “Learning Cell Technique Toward Reading Comprehension of Narrative Text”, hal.45, vol.1, no.2, 2015
4 Siti Masyithah Adnan et al, “Improving Reading Comprehension of The Eight Grade Students Through Just-In-Time Teaching Technique”,hal.2,vol.4,no.1,2016
5 Abbas PourhoseinGilakjani, “How Can Students Improve Their Reading
Comprehension Skill”,Journal of Studies in Education,(Payame Noor University:Tehran,Iran), hal.230, Vol.6, No.2, 2016
6 Ibid,P.230
Based on the definition above, it can be conclude that reading is a process of interaction between reader and text to get information and respond to a message from the text.
b. Kinds of Reading
There are two different kinds of reading. They are extensive reading and intensive reading.
1. Extensive Reading
According to Hedge that extensive reading differs based on learners’ motivation and school resources. A higly motivated and well-trained teacher can certainly select appropriate materials and activities for their own learners. Hedge stessed that because extensive reading assits in expanding learners’
reading skill, it should be incorporated into the EFL/ESL programmes provided that the chosen texts are valid and classified. In addition, extensive reading helps learners to gain their independency through reading either in class or at home.
According to Carrel and Eisterhold, extensive reading activities can be beneficial in aiding learners to become self- directed individuals who are searching for meaning provided that they are based on student-select texts that learners will be interested in what they are reading.
11
2. Intensive Reading
In this type of reading, learners read a page to find the meaning and to be familiar with the strategies of writing.
First, According to Yang, Dai, and Gao that intensive reading is useful to develop reading comprehension.
Second, According to Waring said that intensive reading is very important for learning vocabulary and understanding how text is formed. Moreover , Paran teachers need intensive reading to increase the three phases of learning called pre, during, and post-reading for better language readiness, retention, and activation strategies. On the other hand, Pollar, Durodu, Gonzales, Simmons, Kwok, Taylor, Davis, and Simmons said that intensive reading is considered as a significant instrument for improving reading comprehension.
c. Models of Reading Process
There are three models for the second language reading process:
the bottom-up model, the top-down model, and the interactive model.
1. The Bottom-Up Model
According to Carrell as cited Ahmadi & Pourhosein Gilakjani said that the main focus of this model is the smaller units of a text like letters, words, phrase, and sentences. The reader reads all of the words in a phrase, or a sentences before understanding it.
2. The Top-Down Model
Goodman as cited in Ahmadi & Pourhosein Gilakjani said readinf as a “psycholinguistic guessing game” in which readers apply their previous knowledge to relate with a text and to cannot these to new information found in the text in order to understand it.
The readers do not read every word of a text but they focus on identifying the next words. They try to guess the meaning of words or phrase.
3. The Interactive Model
According to Rumelhart , Nunan, and Grabe , the effective reading needs both top-down and bottom-up decoding. L2 readers can use top-down reading to make up for deficits in bottom-up reading. To obtain meaning, they apply their schemata to make up for the absence of bottom-up knowledge.
According to Stanovich (as cited in Ahmadi & Pourhosein Gilakjani), this model is based on information from various sources
13
like orthoghrapic, lexical, syntactic, semantic knowledge, and schemata.7
d. The Importance of Teaching Reading
According to Hedge states that any reading component of an English language course may include a set learning goals for
1. The ability to read a wide range of texts in English. This is the long- range goal most teachers seek to develope through independent readers outside EFL/ESL classroom.
2. Building a knowledge of language which will facilitate raeding ability.
3. Building schematic knowledge.
4. The ability to adapt the reading style according to reading purpose (i.e skimming, scanning).
5. Developing an awarences of the structure of written texts in English.
6. Taking a critical stance to the contents of the texts.8
2. The Definition of Reading Comprehension Skill a. Definition of Reading Comprehension Skill
According to Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, and Wilkinson, Jenkins, Larson, and Fleischer, O’Shea, Sindelar, and O’Shea (Klinger, Vaughn, and Boardman) said that reading comprehension
7 Ibid,P.230
8 Hesham Suleiman Alyousef, ”Teaching Reading Comprehension to ESL/EFL Learners”, Jornal Reading Matrix, P147, Vol.5, No.2, 2005
skill is the process of constucting meaning by coordinating a number of complex processes that include word reading, word and world knowledge, and fluency.9
According to Grabe & Stoller state that reading comprehension skill is a processing words, forming a representation of general main ideas and intregating it into a new understanding. It suggests that comprehension is achived when a reader succesfull extracts the useful knowledge from a text and contructs it into a new understanding of their own. Furthemore Day and Park (2005) also propose several types of comprehension, as follow.
1. Literal comprehension is to have a straightforwad understanding meaning of a text, such as vocabularies and fact, which is not explicated in the text.
2. Inferential comprehension is to conclude information from a text and build new information which is not explicitly stated in text.
3. Reorganitation is rearranging information from various parts of a text in order to get new information.
9 Sigit Vebrianto Susilo, “ Cooperative Learning Make Match dalam pembelajaran Reading Comprehension di kelas IV Sekolah Dasar”, Jurnal Cakrawala Penas, Vol.1, No.1, 2015, P.81
15
4. Predictive comprehension is integrating reader’s understanding of a text and their own knowledge about that text in order to determine what might happen next or after it is finished.
5. Evaluative comprehension is like inferential comprehension.
The difference is that evaluative comprehension requires reader’s comprehensive judgment about some aspect in a text and ability to redevelop an understanding by using related issues.
6. Appreciative or personal comprehension is reading in order to gain an emotional or other value response from a text, and it demand reader to respond a text also with their feelings.10 Smith and Robinson, in Dirham state that reading comprehension skill means that understanding, evaluating and utilizing the information and ideas gained through and interaction between and author and a reader in which the written language becomes through the medium of print.11
Heilman, et.al. state “Reading Comprehension skill is a process of making sense or written ideas through meaningfull interpretation and interaction with language. In other word, comprehension will be reaced in condition that a reader is able to
10 Fajar Furqon, “Correlation Between Students’ Vocabulary Mastery And Their Reading Comprehension”, Journal of English and Education, Vol.1, No.1, 2013, P.70
11 Ardiana, “Improving The Students Reading Comprehension in Narrative Text Through Patterned Partner Reading”,Exposure Journal, Vol.4, No.2, 2015
interact and to interpret what the author wants to express on his/her written or printed language.12
Based onthe statments above it can conclude that reading comprehension skill is an active process of understanding a text which has specific purpose as efficiently as possible that is aimed to get more information in term of reader’s experimental background and it is used by the reader to interpret what he or she has got from reading that text.
b. Level of reading Comprehension Skill
According to Burns, there are four levels of reading comprehension skill. The following levels of comprehension can tell us about how far the students understand about reading material and which level has been achieved.
1. Literal Comprehension
Literal comprehension involves acquiring information that is directly stated, the basic of literal comprehension is recognizing stated the main idea, detailed caused effect and sequence. It is also prerequisiti for heigher-level understanding. The important in this level is understanding of vocabulary, sentence meaning, and paragraph meaning.
12 Irfan Marianto Pawana, et.al, Improving Reading Comprehension of The Eleventh Year Students By Using Fairy Tale”, e-Journal of English Language teaching Society (ELTS), Vol.2, No.1, 2014, P.2
17
2. Interpretative Comprehension
Interpretative comprehension involves reading between the lines or making inferences. It it the process of deriving ideas that are implied rather than directly stated. Skills for interpretative reading include:
a. Inferring main ideas of passages in which the main ideas are not directly stated
b. Inferring cause-effect relationships when they are not directly stated
c. Inferring referents of pronouns d. Inferring referent adverbs e. Inferring omitted words f. Detecting mood
g. Detecting the author’s purpose in writing h. Drawing conclusion
3. Critical Comprehension
Critical Comprehension is evaluating written material comparing the ideas discovered in the material with known standars and drawing conclusion about their accuracy, appropriateness, and timeliness. The critical reader must be an active reader, questioning, searching for facts, and suspending judgment until he or she has considered all of the material.
Critical reading depends upon literal comprehension, and grasping implied ideas is especially important.
4. Creative Comprehension
Creative comprehension involves going beyond the material presented by the author. It requires reader to think as they read, just a critical reading does and it also requires them to use their imaginations. Through creative reading the reader creates something new idea, the solution to a problem, a new way of looking at something from the ideas gleaned from the text.13
From the statment above writer conclude that, the achive comprehension in reading, in literal comprehension the readers has to know the information explicity. In interpretative comprehension, the reader has to be able to evaluate the information by giving a question and critique the information.
3. The Concept of Picture Word Inductive Model a. The definition of Picture Word Inductive Model
The picture word inductive model is used asa medium for teaching reading comprehension skill because it is effective media to solve the problem in reading comprehension.
13 Erika Sinambela et.al,”Improving Students’ Reading Comprehension Achivement by Using K-W-L Strategy”, (OnlinePublished by Sciedu Press: July 23, 2015), Vol.4, No.3, 2017, P.16
19
First, According Calhoun in this book, the PWIM is an inquiry-oriented language art strategy that uses pictures containing familiar objects and actions to elicit words from children’s listening and speaking vocabularies. Theachers used the PWIM with clasess, small groups, and individuals to lead them into inquiring about words, adding words to their sight-reading and writing vocabularies, discovering phonetic and structural principles, and using observation and analysis in their study of reading and writing.14
Second,according to Adams, Johnson, & Connors,in Calhoun’s book say that “the concept of using pictures as a stimulus for language experience activities in the classroom was developed specifically for teaching young students to read and writing well.15
Third, according to Rowena Douglas Picture Word Inductive Model (PWIM) is a language arts strategy teacher uses with two or three units a year. Teacher put up a picture or poster that relates the topic the class is discussing.16
From the statment above it can be conclude that the picture word inductive model (PWIM) can improve the students from passive learning into active learning by applying to provided reading
14 Emily.F.Calhoun, Teaching Beginning Reading And Writing With Picture Word Inductive Model, (Alexandria, VA: association for supervision and curriculum developmnet, 1999), p.21.
15Ibid., p.24-25.
16 Rowena Douglas, et.al, Linking Science & Literacy, (USA: National Science TeacherAssociation, 2006), p.185
comprehension activities, and help the students undrestand about vocabulary and the students can read paragraph step by step..
b. Advantages and Disadvantages of Picture Word Inductive Model
1. Advantages of Picture Word Inductive Model
According to Calhoun there are seven advantages of Picture Word Inductive Model :
a) The strategy emphasizes phonic, grammar, mechanics, and usage of standard english.
b) Picture provide authentic, concrete referents for the learning of new words, phrase, and sentence.
c) Because students are using pictures related to content mataerial under study, they have the opportunity to use the words repeatedly in an authentic way. They feel a part of the clasroom community and can participate in class activities.
d) The picture word chart serves as an immediate reference enable students to add these words to their sight vocabulary.
The teacher can choose to emphasize almost any sound and symbol relationship (introduced or taken to mastery).
e) Students are assisted in seeing the patterns and relationships of the english language, enabling them to apply this learning to newly encountered words.
21
f) Students hear and see words spelled correctly and participate in the correct spelling and writing.
g) Learners benefit from the teacher modeling of the key words and concepts. With extensive practice, they can begin to learn how to create sentences and paragraphs related to the subject under study.17
2. Disadvantages of Picture Word Inductive Model
There are several disadvantages using picture word inductive model as follows:
a) The pictures that are used might not interest the studets.
b) The teacher should be aware about the size of the picture.
The size of the picture should be appropriate to the number of the class.
c) The model is time consuming.
Based the statent above picture word inductive model has some advantages and disadvantages, the advantages are the students hear the words pronounced correctly many times and the picturre word chart is an immediate references as they add these words to their sight vocabulary, the teacher can choose to emphasize almost any sound and symbol relationship. Besides, the disadvantages are the pictures that are used might not
17 Alien Colon and Sara Martinez, “Building Language with The Picture Word Inductive Model”, (Fordham University: New York), No.4, 2013
interest the students. The teacher should be aware about the size of the picture. The size of the picture should be appropriate to the number of the class.
c. The Steps of Picture Word Inductive Model
PWIM has many succesfull in classroom (Calhoun, Joyco &
Shower, Joyco et.al.). Calhoun claims that its succesful applications are closely related to prescribed and detailed steps for implementation, an instructional sequence incorporating cycling and recycling throught the following 10 instructional steps:
1. Selects a picture.
2. Ask students to identify what they see in the picture.
3. Label the picture parts identified. (Draw a line from the identified object or area, say the word, writte the word, ask students to spell the word aloud and than to pronounce it).
4. Read and review the picture chart aloud.
5. Ask students to read the words (using the lines on the chart if necessary) and to classify the words into variety of groups.
Identify common concept (e.g beginning consonants, rhyming words) to emphasize with the whole class.
6. Read and review the picture words chart (say the word, spell it, say it again).
7. Add words, if desired, to the picture word chart and to the word banks,
23
8. Lead students into creating a title for the picture word chart. Ask students to think about the information on the chart and what they want to say about it.
9. Ask students to generate a sentence, sentences, or a paragraph about the picture word chart. Ask students to classify sentences;
model putting the sentences into a good paragraph.
10. Read and review the sentences and paragraph.18
B. Theoretical Framework and Paradigm 1. Theoretical Framework
The problem which is faced by the students in Reading Comprehension Skill is difficult finding the specific information or part of text. In other word, the students have lack of Reading ComprehensionSkill and often felt bored in learning activities. So, the writer tries to offer a Picture Word Inductive Model toward students’ Reading Comprehension Skill. Picture Word Inductive Model is an alternative way in Reading Comprehension Skill.
Student will be more fun and active in the teaching learning process.
18 Xuan Jiang, “Vocabulary Learning through Use of the Picture Word Inductive Model for Young English Learners in China:A Mixed Methods Examination Using Cognitive Load Theory”, (Florida University 2014),P.26
2. Paradigm
Based on the theoritical framework above the writer describe the paradigm as follows:
The effect of using picture word inductive model towards students’ reading comprehension skill.
Figure 1.
Based on the paradigm above, the writer assumes that if using picture word inductive model is effective, the students’
reading comprehension skill be good. It means that there is a positive and significant effect of using picture word inductive model toward students’ reading comprehension skill. Vice versa, if using picture word inductive model is not effective, that students’ reading comprehension skill will be poor. It means that there is no positive and siggnificant effect of using picture word inductive model toward students’ reading comprehension skill.
Using Picture Word Inductive
Model
(Variable X)
Reading Comprehension
Skill
(Variable Y)
Complete
Incomplete
H Y P O T H E S I S
25
3. Research Hypothesis a. Hypothesis Formulation
Two types of hypotheses which you should be familiar are the nullhypothesis (Ho) and the alternative (Ha) hypothesis. The null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no differences between the groups being studied. By contrast, the alternative hypothesis predicts that there will be a difference between the groups.19The criteria of the test of hypotheses as follow:
1. Ho: There is no effect using Picture Word Inductive Model on students’ Reading Comprehension Skill at the ten grade of MA Ma’arif NU 05 Sekampung in the academic year 2019/2020.
2. Ha : There is effect using Picture Word inductive Model on students’ Reading Comprehension Skill at the ten grade of MA Ma’arif NU 05 Sekampung in the academic year 2019/2020.
b. Alternative Hypothesis
There is a positive and significant effect of using piture word inductive model toward students’ reading comprehension skill at the tenth graders of MA Ma’arif NU 05 Sekampung.
19 Geoffrey Marczyk, David DeMatteo and David Festinger, Essential of Research Design and Methodology, ( Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005), 8-9
34