CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
B. Reading Comprehension
3. Skills Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension is the result of many component of skill and abilities (Pettit & Cockriel, 1974). These skills and abilities are divided into levels based on complexities and difficulties. Lapp and Flood (1986) divided the skills underlined reading comprehension into three levels: (1) literal comprehension (reading on the lines), (2) inferential comprehension (reading between the lines),(3) critical comprehension (reading beyond the lines). According to Lapp and Flood (1986) literal level of comprehension identifies the most important information, while inferential level observes the relationship of information then make inferences based on the relationship. In the critical comprehension the reader are expected to use the current information to create new information or ideas.
However, based on scope the study, the writer only described skills of reading comprehension at the level literal comprehension which is
indicated by the ability to identify and understand the direct- stated information of the text and inferential comprehension which is define as the ability to generate conclusion based on the text. Both of these levels in reading comprehension are described below:
a. Literal Comprehension
The first key to comprehending a written passage it from a literal comprehension. Therefore, literal comprehension is fundamental to all reading skills at any levels because readers must first understand what the author said before they can draw and inference or make an evaluation (Carnine, Jerry, and Kameenui, 1997). According to Lapp and Flood (1986),literal comprehension revers to the ability to understand and identify the information that directly stated on the printed pages; fact and opinion, directly stated main ideas, and sequences. Cete et.al. (2001) also suggest that the basic skills of literal comprehension are recognizing he stated main ideas and supporting details, cause-effect and sequences, and identifying pronoun references.
Literal comprehension involves what the author is actually saying. The reader needs to understand ideas and information explicitly stated in reading material. Some of this information is in the form of recognizing and recalling facts, identifying the main ideas, supporting details, categorizing outlining, and summarizing. The readers is also locating information, using context clues to supply
meaning, following specific direction, following a sequences,identifying stated conclusion, and identifying explicitly stated relationships and organizational patterns. These organizational patterns can include cause and effect as well as comparison and contrast.
Question assessing literal comprehension skills examine how well students can identify and understand information that is directly stated in a text. However, according to Carnine, et.al (1997), literal questioning can very in difficulty depending on the length of the text;
the order in which the questions are asked and how they match to the order of the text; and the use of pronoun references
In summary, literal comprehension is the simplest from comprehension because it focuses only to the information that is stated directly in the text. It requires the readers to focus only on one or some particular information or detail which are needed from a text such as name, date, a scientific term, or a place, and so on. At this level of reading comprehension, the readers are demanded to identify and understand the literal information which directly stated in the text.
b. Inferential Comprehension
Inference is another word for conclusion. The ability to make inference is regard as a central component of skilled reading. It requires a reader to blend the literal content of a selection with prior knowledge, intuition, and imagination for conjecture or to make
hypotheses (Lapp & Flood, 1986). It demands the ability to make connections between personal experiences and comprehension of a text.
According to Cain (2009, p. 856) relevant background knowledge for a passage is a better predictor of fourth graders‟ ability to generate inferences from and elaborate on that text than is their comprehension skill. It means inferential making depends the readers‟
ability to make connecting between information within the text and their background knowledge. The relationship between background knowledge and inference is not reciprocal. Elaborative inferences cannot be drawn without the prerequisite knowledge. However, just because a reader has that background knowledge does not automatically guarantee that the reader will necessarily make the inference.
Inference making is a key component of fluent reading, and as such, several aspect of the process are of interest, including the kinds of inferences readers make and the factors that determine whether and when inferences are made. Inferential of reading comprehension includes thinking process such as drawing conclusions, generalizing and predicting outcomes (Cate, Jane, Marcia, & Peter, 2001). The ability to generate inferences is an essential skill that greatly determines the degree to which a passage will be understood (Green &
Roth, 2013). At this level, readers go beyond what is said and read for
deeper meanings. They are expected to integrate information and draw conclusion or inference, and they need to know not only what the
writers write but also what they mean
(Lapp & Flood, 1986). An inference can be made only when the requisite general knowledge necessary to make that inference is available. In summary, inferential comprehension demands a higher level of thinking ability because the question in this category of interpretative are concern whit that are not directly stated in the text but are suggested or implied.
Inferential comprehension also involve interpreting figurative language, drawing conclusion, predicting outcomes, determining the mood, and judging the author‟s point of view. Therefore, inferential comprehension deals with that the author means by what is said. The reader must simply read between the lines and make inferences about things not directly stated. Again, these inferences are made in the main idea, supporting details, sequences, and cause and effect relationship.