CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
B. Self-Efficacy
2. Sources of Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Stress, emotion, mood, pain, and weariness have all been shown to have an impact on one's sense of self-efficacy in the past. In general, there are four basic types of influence: enactive mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and social influence (Hodges, 2008).
a. Socio-Economic Status
Sociologists classify individuals into four social classes: upper class, middle class, working-class, and lower class (Moreno‐Jiménez & Villodres, 2010). The socioeconomic status of pupils has an impact on their academic results. Students from better socioeconomic backgrounds outperform their counterparts from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Barry, 2006). At the same time, parental resources and education impact children's feelings of self- efficacy and competence. Children from low-income families may exhibit signs of learned helplessness. As a result, many pupils may assume they will never be able to conquer their schoolwork. As a result, it is necessary to investigate the origins of self-efficacy among students from various socioeconomic backgrounds and strategies for increasing it.
b. Gender
Several researchers have looked at the link between gender differences and sources of self-efficacy, and the results have been mixed. According to Mills et al., (2007) Gender has been identified as one of the factors that impact the performance and motivation of foreign language students, and it has been recognized as such. Self-efficacy research has been conducted in a variety of academic fields, including science and mathematics, to address gender-related issues. In cultures where women are more likely than men to pursue FLs as an area of study, males tend to discount FLs because they perceive it is a female- only domain; they also display a better sense of confidence in their skills to conduct math and science than women. When male students participate in a language learning context, they develop feelings of unease and discontent as a result of this phenomenon. Male and female students were found to be equally self-efficacious in language arts, although female students were shown to be more so than their male counterparts (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Some research found a statistically significant link between the two variables (Joët et al., 2011)
c. Learning Style
According to Pritchard (2017) and Slavin (2019), Learning style refers to students' many approaches to learning a subject. Three learning styles have been proposed in the field of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP). First, visual learners learn by viewing and using diagrams, tables, graphs, maps, and posters to aid their understanding. Second, auditory learners get knowledge by listening and conversation; lectures, interviews, hearing tales, and audio cassettes are all effective learning methods for these individuals. Finally, kinesthetic learners are those who learn via doing and who like physical exercise. To investigate the link between sources of self-efficacy and learning styles to make it easier for instructors to carry out their instructional responsibilities in order to increase students' self-efficacy.
d. Mastery Experience
The most effective source of self-efficacy is mastery experience, also known as enactive mastery, mastery learning, enactive attainment, or performance attainment (Joët et al., 2011). According to Zulkosky (2009), mastery learning develops high levels of self-efficacy beliefs when individuals confront new challenges based on prior accomplishments. On the other hand, patterns of failure in the past may result in lower self-efficacy views. They may have a detrimental effect on a person's decision-making when presented with new, future problems. Zulkosky (2009) observed that repeated failures might cause individuals to restrict their alternatives, degrees of success, and tenacity in future difficult or stressful situations, resulting in diminished effectiveness beliefs.
Raoofi et al. (2012) state that one's self-efficacy views are influenced more by direct experiences with tasks than by social comparisons when doing activities. When it comes to self-efficacy, students do not compare their perceived competence with the capacity of their peers in the same field of study. Instead, they make an assessment of their abilities to do a specific assignment successfully. In the area of academic self-efficacy, the research has
focused more on students' perceptions of their own abilities. Student engagement and learning are both influenced by their sense of self-efficacy.
Affective involvement is composed of three components: behavior, cognition, and motivation. When it comes to behavioral engagement, the instructor can quickly determine whether or not the students are putting out the effort, persevering, and requesting assistance. If they are unable to be effective on their own, they are more likely to quit.
On the other hand, teachers are unable to access students' cognitive involvement since it is contained within their minds. When students are more deeply engaged with the content, high efficacy students employ more cognitive methods than the other students. Personal interest (such as liking and disliking something), value (such as importance and utility), and emotion are all components of motivational engagement. It may be summarized that students' self-efficacy can motivate them to become more involved in their academic environments, resulting in improved learning outcomes. As a result, the greater the level of student engagement, the more students learn and the higher the level of performance.
e. Vicarious Experience
Through reliance on the talents of others, vicarious experience, also known as modeling, has the impact of diminishing self-efficacy. According to Wilde and Hsu (2019), behind direct experience, vicarious experience is regarded as the second most effective approach for improving self-efficacy. The capacity to watch others' experiences and make connections between their activities and the consequences they encounter is referred to as vicarious learning (Tufford et al., 2021). This can be performed in various ways, including viewing a model, symbolic modeling, watching self-portrait films, or cognitive self-modeling, which is visualizing oneself performing a certain activity while thinking about it. When individuals compare their future potential for success to that of another, observation can serve as either positive or negative reinforcement for their own self-efficacy beliefs, depending on how they interpret the
observation. Observers gather knowledge about other people's activities and judge how they should act in the future through vicarious learning.