Figure 1.2]
Part 7: Special Applications of Organization Development Organization Development
Process Approaches (Chapter 13)
Part 4:
Technostructural Interventions Restructuring Organizations (Chapter 14) Employee Involvement (Chapter 15) Work Design (Chapter 16)
Part 6:
Strategic Change Interventions Transformational Change
(Chapter 20) Continuous Change (Chapter 21) Transorganizational Change
(Chapter 22) Entering and
Contracting (Chapter 4)
Feeding Back Diagnostic Information (Chapter 8)
Diagnosing Organizations (Chapter 5)
Designing Interventions (Chapter 9)
Diagnosing Groups and Jobs (Chapter 6)
Leading and Managing Change (Chapter 10)
Collecting and Analyzing Diagnostic Information (Chapter 7) Evaluating and Institutionalizing OD Interventions (Chapter 11) Part 2: The Process of Organization Development
The Nature of Planned Change (Chapter 2)
The Organization Development Practitioner (Chapter 3)
Part 7: Special Applications of Organization Development Organization Development
in Global Settings (Chapter 23)
OD in Health Care,
School Systems, the Public Sector, and Family-Owned Businesses (Chapter 24)
Future Directions in Organization Development (Chapter 25) Part 5:
Human Resource Management Interventions Performance Management (Chapter 17) Developing Talent (Chapter 18) Managing Workforce Diversity and Wellness (Chapter 19)
Part 2 is composed of eight chapters that describe the process of organization devel- opment. Chapter 4 characterizes the first activity in this process: entering an organiza- tional system and contracting with it for organization development work. Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8 present the steps associated with the next major activity of the OD process:
diagnosing. This involves helping the organization understand its current functioning
16 CHAPTER 1 General Introduction to Organization Development
and discover areas for improvement. Chapters 5 and 6 present an open-systems model to guide diagnosis at three levels of analysis: the total organization, the group or department, and the individual job or position. Chapters 7 and 8 review methods for collecting, analyzing, and feeding back diagnostic data. Chapters 9 and 10 address issues concerned with the third activity: designing OD interventions and implement- ing change. Chapter 9 presents an overview of the intervention design process. Major kinds of interventions are identified, and the specific approaches that make up the next four parts of the book are introduced. Chapter 10 discusses the process of leading and managing change. It identifies key factors contributing to the successful implementa- tion of change programs. Chapter 11 describes the final activity of the planned change process: evaluating OD interventions and establishing them as a permanent part of organizational functioning.
Parts 3 through 6 present the major interventions used in OD today. Part 3 (Chapters 12 and 13) is concerned with human process interventions aimed at the social pro- cesses occurring within organizations. These are the oldest and most traditional inter- ventions in OD. Chapter 12 describes interpersonal and group process approaches, such as process consultation, third-party interventions, and team building. Chapter 13 presents more systemwide process approaches, such as organizational confrontation meetings, intergroup relations, and large-group interventions.
Part 4 (Chapters 14, 15, and 16) reviews technostructural interventions that are aimed at organization structure and at better integrating people and technology.
Chapter 14 is about restructuring organizations; it describes the alternative methods of organizing work activities as well as processes for downsizing and reengineering the organization. Chapter 15 presents interventions for improving employee involve- ment. These change programs increase employee knowledge, power, information, and rewards through parallel structures, total quality management, and high-involve- ment organizations. Chapter 16 describes change programs directed at work design, both of individual jobs and of work groups, for greater employee satisfaction and productivity.
Part 5 (Chapters 17, 18, and 19) presents human resource management interven- tions that are directed at integrating people into the organization. These interventions are associated traditionally with the human resource function in the organization and increasingly have become a part of OD activities. Chapter 17 concerns the process of performance management. This is a cycle of activities that helps groups and individu- als to set goals, appraise work, and reward performance. Chapter 18 discusses inter- ventions that build human talent and capital in the organization, including coaching, career planning and development, and management and leadership development.
Chapter 19 presents two interventions that address and leverage workforce diversity and improve employee wellness.
Part 6 (Chapters 20, 21, and 22) concerns strategic interventions that focus on organizing the firm’s resources to gain a competitive advantage in the environment.
These change programs generally are managed from the top of the organization and take considerable time, effort, and resources. Chapter 20 presents three interventions having to do with organization transformation, including integrated strategic change, organization design, and culture change. Chapter 21 describes continuous change inter- ventions, including self-design, learning and knowledge management, and creating built to change organizations. Finally, Chapter 22 describes three transorganizational interventions: merger and acquisition integration processes, alliance formation and management, and network development and change.
Part 7 (Chapters 23, 24, and 25) is concerned with special topics in OD. Chapter 23 describes the practice of OD in international settings. OD in organizations operating outside of the United States requires modification of the interventions to fit the coun- try’s cultural context. Organization development in worldwide organizations is aimed
at improving the internal alignment of strategy, structure, and process to achieve global objectives. Furthermore, the practice of OD in global social change organizations promotes sustainable development and improves human potential in emerging coun- tries. Chapter 24 presents broad applications of OD in different kinds of organizations, including educational, government, family-owned, and health care agencies. Finally, Chapter 25 examines the future of organization development, including the trends affecting the field and the prospects for its influence on organization effectiveness.
SUMMARY
This chapter introduced OD as a planned change discipline concerned with apply- ing behavioral science knowledge and practices to help organizations achieve greater effectiveness. Managers and staff specialists must work with and through people to achieve organizational objectives, and OD can help them form effective relationships with others. Organizations are faced with rapidly accelerating change, and OD can help them cope with the consequences of change. The concept of OD has multiple meanings. The definition provided here resolved some of the problems with earlier definitions. The history of OD reveals its five roots: laboratory training, action research and survey feedback, normative approaches, productivity and quality of work life, and strategic change. The current practice of OD goes far beyond its humanistic origins by incorporating concepts from organization strategy and design that complement the early emphasis on social processes. The continued growth in the number and diversity of OD approaches, practitioners, and involved organizations attests to the health of the discipline and offers a favorable prospect for the future.
1. C. Worley and A. Feyerherm, “Reflections on the Future of OD,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 39 (2003): 97–115.
2. W. Burke, Organization Development: Principles and Practices (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982).
3. W. French, “Organization Development: Objectives, Assumptions, and Strategies,” California Management Review 12, 2 (1969): 23–34.
4. R. Beckhard, Organization Development: Strate gies and Models (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969).
5. M. Beer, Organization Change and Development: A Systems View (Santa Monica, Calif.: Goodyear Publishing, 1980).
6. W. Burke and D. Bradford, “The Crisis in OD,” in Reinventing Organization Development, eds. D. Bradford and W. Burke (San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, 2005): 1–14.
7. N. Worren, K. Ruddle, and K. Moore, “From Organization Development to Change Manage ment:
The Emergence of a New Profession,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 35 (1999): 273–86; J. Hayes, The Theory and Practice of Change Manage ment (New York:
Palgrave, 2002); R. Paton and J. McCalman, Change Management (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2000).
8. G. Hamel, The Future of Management (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2007); W. Burke, Organization Change (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2002);
D. Watts, Six Degrees (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003);
M. Wheatley, Leadership and the New Science (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 1999); S. Chowdhury, ed., Organization 21C (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2002); B. Jones and M. Brazzel (eds.), The NTL Handbook of Organization Development and Change (San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, 2006).
9. T. Stewart, “Welcome to the Revolution,” Fortune (December 13, 1993) 66–80; M. Hitt, R. Ireland, R. Hoskisson, Strategic Management 7th ed. (Mason, OH: Southwestern College Publishing, 2006).
10. T. Friedman, The World is Flat (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2006); J. Perkins, Confessions of an Economic Hit Man (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2005); A. Chua, World on Fire (New York: Doubleday, 2002); International Forum on Globalization, Alternatives to Economic Globalization (San Francisco:
Berrett-Koehler, 2002).
11. Time Magazine, “Person of the Year,” Time (December 25, 2006).
12. M. Anderson, ed., Fast Cycle Organization Develop- ment (Cincinnati: South-Western College Publishing,
NOTES
18 CHAPTER 1 General Introduction to Organization Development
2000); M. Hammer and J. Champy, Reengineering the Corporation (New York: HarperCollins, 1993); P. Senge, The Fifth Discip line (New York: Doubleday, 1990).
13. A. Kleiner, The Age of Heretics (New York:
Doubleday, 1996); A. Freedman, “The History of Organization Development and the NTL Institute:
What We have Learned, Forgotten, and Re written,”
The Psychologist-Manager Journal 3 (1999): 125–41.
14. L. Bradford, “Biography of an Institution,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 3 (1967): 127; A. Marrow,
“Events Leading to the Establishment of the National Training Laboratories,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 3 (1967): 145–50.
15. Kleiner, Age of Heretics; M. Mortara, “Organi zation Development and Change at TRW Space Technology Laboratories” (unpublished master’s thesis, Pepperdine University, 2003).
16. W. French, “The Emergence and Early History of Organization Development with Reference to Influences upon and Interactions among Some of the Key Actors,” in Contemporary Organization Develop- ment: Current Thinking and Applications, ed. D. Warrick (Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman, 1985): 12–27.
17. A. Marrow, D. Bowers, and S. Seashore, Manage- ment by Participation (New York: Harper & Row, 1967).
18. L. Coch and J. French, “Overcoming Resistance to Change,” Human Relations 1 (1948): 512–32.
19. W. Whyte and E. Hamilton, Action Research for Management (Homewood, Ill.: Irwin-Dorsey, 1964).
20. J. Collier, “United States Indian Administra tion as a Laboratory of Ethnic Relations,” Social Research 12 (May 1945): 275–76.
21. French, “Emergence and Early History,” 19–20.
22. F. Mann, “Studying and Creating Change,” in The Planning of Change: Readings in the Applied Behavioral Sciences, eds. W. Bennis, K. Benne, and R. Chin (New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1962), 605–15.
23. R. Likert, The Human Organization (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1967); S. Seashore and D. Bowers,
“Durability of Organizational Change,” American Psychologist 25 (1970): 227–33; D. Mosley, “System Four Revisited: Some New Insights,” Organization Development Journal 5 (Spring 1987): 19–24; R. Blake and J. Mouton, The Managerial Grid (Houston: Gulf, 1964); R. Blake and J. Mouton, Corporate Excellence Through Grid Organization Development: A Systems Approach (Houston: Gulf, 1968); R. Blake and J. Mouton, Building a Dynamic Corporation Through Grid Organization Development (Reading, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley, 1969).
24. Likert, Human Organization.
25. Ibid.
26. Blake and Mouton, The Managerial Grid; Blake and Mouton, Corporate Excellence; Blake and Mouton, Building a Dynamic Corporation; R. Blake and A. McCanse, Leadership Dilemmas—Grid Solutions (Houston: Gulf, 1991).
27. Blake and Mouton, Corporate Excellence.
28. Blake and Mouton, Managerial Grid.
29. A. Rice, Productivity and Social Organization: The Ahmedabad Experiment (London: Tavistock Publi cations, 1958); E. Trist and K. Bamforth, “Some Social and Psychological Consequences of the Longwall Method of Coal-Getting,” Human Relations 4 (January 1951):
1–38; P. Gyllenhamer, People at Work (Reading, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley, 1977); E. Thorsrud, B. Sorensen, and B. Gustavsen, “Socio technical Approach to Industrial Democracy in Norway,” in Handbook of Work Organization and Society, ed. R. Dubin (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976): 648–87; Work in America: Report of a Special Task Force to the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1973); L. Davis and A. Cherns, eds., The Quality of Working Life, 2 vols.
(New York: Free Press, 1975).
30. D. Nadler and E. Lawler III, “Quality of Work Life: Perspectives and Directions” (working paper, Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1982); L. Davis,
“Enhancing the Quality of Work Life: Develop ments in the United States,” International Labour Review 116 (July–August 1977): 53–65; L. Davis, “Job Design and Productivity: A New Approach,” Personnel 33 (1957): 418–30.
31. Ibid.
32. R. Ford, “Job Enrichment Lessons from AT&T,”
Harvard Business Review 51 (January–February 1973):
96–106; J. Taylor, J. Landy, M. Levine, and D. Kamath, Quality of Working Life: An Annotated Bibliography, 1957–1972 (Center for Organizational Studies, Graduate School of Management, University of California at Los Angeles, 1972); J. Taylor, “Experi- ments in Work System Design: Economic and Human Results,” Personnel Review 6 (1977): 28–37; J. Taylor,
“Job Satisfaction and Quality of Working Life: A Reassessment,” Journal of Occupational Psychology 50 (December 1977): 243–52.
33. W. Ouchi, Theory Z (Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley, 1981).
34. J. Vogt and K. Murrell, Empowerment in Organizations (San Diego: University Associates, 1990).
35. M. Jelinek and J. Litterer, “Why OD Must Become Strategic,” in Research in Organizational Change and Development, vol. 2, eds. W. Pasmore and R. Woodman (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1988), 135–62;
P. Buller, “For Successful Strategic Change: Blend OD Practices with Strategic Management,” Organizational Dynamics (Winter 1988): 42–55; C. Worley, D. Hitchin,
and W. Ross, Integrated Strategic Change (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996).
36. Worley, Hitchin, and Ross, Integrated Strategic Change; N. Rajagopalan and G. Spreitzer, “Toward a Theory of Strategic Change: A Multi-Lens Perspective and Integrative Framework,” Academy of Management Review 22 (1997): 48–79.
37. R. Beckhard and R. Harris, Organizational Transitions: Managing Complex Change, 2d ed. (Read- ing, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1987); N. Tichy, Manag- ing Strategic Change (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1983); E. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985); C. Lundberg,
“Working with Culture,” Journal of Organization Change Management 1 (1988): 38–47.
38. D. Miller and P. Freisen, “Momentum and Revolution in Organization Adaptation,” Academy of Management Journal 23 (1980): 591–614; M. Tushman and E. Romanelli, “Organizational Evolution: A Metamorphosis Model of Convergence and Reorientation,” in Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 7, eds. L. Cummings and B. Staw (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1985), 171–222.
39. Beckhard and Harris, Organizational Transitions.
40. T. Covin and R. Kilmann, “Critical Issues in Large- Scale Organization Change,” Journal of Organization Change Management 1 (1988): 59–72; A. Mohrman, S. Mohrman, G. Ledford Jr., T. Cummings, and E. Lawler, eds., Large-Scale Organization Change (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989); W. Torbert, “Leading Organizational Transformation,” in Research in Organizational Change and Development, vol. 3, eds.
R. Woodman and W. Pasmore (Greenwich, Conn.:
JAI Press, 1989), 83–116; J. Bartunek and M. Louis,
“The Interplay of Organization Development and Organization Transformation,” in Research in Organizational Change and Development, vol. 2, eds.
W. Pasmore and R. Woodman (Greenwich, Conn.:
JAI Press, 1988), 97–134; A. Levy and U. Merry, Organizational Transformation: Approaches, Strategies, Theories (New York: Praeger, 1986).
41. M. Marks and P. Mirvis, Joining Forces (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998).
42. A. Jaeger, “Organization Development and National Culture: Where’s the Fit?” Academy of Management Review 11 (1986): 178; G. Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values (London: Sage, 1980); P. Sorensen Jr., T. Head, N. Mathys, J. Preston, and D. Cooperrider, Global and International Organization Development (Champaign, Ill.:
Stipes, 1995); A. Chin (with C. Chin), Internationalizing OD: Cross-Cultural Experiences of NTL Members (Alexandria, VA.: NTL Institute, 1997).
43. G. Varney and A. Darrow, “Market Position of Master-Level Graduate Programs in OD,” OD
Practitioner 27 (1995): 39–43; OD Institute, Inter- national Registry of O.D. Professionals and O.D. Handbook (Cleveland: OD Institute, 1995); G. Varney and A. Darrow, “Name Recognition of Master’s Level Graduate Programs in Organization Development and Change,” OD Practitioner 30 (1998): 36–40.
44. C. Argyris and D. Schon, Organizational Learning II (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996); C. Argyris, R. Putnam, and D. Smith, Action Science (San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1985).
45. W. Bennis, Managing People Is Like Herding Cats:
Warren Bennis on Leadership (New York: Executive Excellence, 1997); W. Bennis and B. Nanus, Leaders (New York: Harper & Row, 1985).
46. B. Patwell and E. Seashore, Triple Impact Coaching (Columbia, Maryland: Bingham House Books, 2006).
47. E. Schein, Process Consultation Revisited: Creating the Helping Relationship (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1999); E. Schein, Process Consultation: Its Role in Organization Development (Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley, 1969); E. Schein, Process Consultation Volume II: Lessons for Managers and Consultants (Reading, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley, 1987); E. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership, 2d ed. (San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 1997).
48. Beckhard and Harris, Organizational Transitions;
R. Beckhard and W. Pritchard, Changing the Essence (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992); R. Beckhard, Agent of Change (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997).
49. R. Tannenbaum and R. Hanna, “Holding On, Letting Go, and Moving On: Understanding a Neglected Perspective on Change,” in Human Systems Development, eds. R. Tannenbaum, N. Margulies, and F. Massarik (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985), 95–121.
50. W. Burke, Organization Development: Principles and Practices (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982); W. Burke, Organization Development: A Normative View (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1987); W. Burke, “Organi- zation Development: Then, Now, and Tomorrow,”
OD Practitioner 27 (1995): 5–13.
51. L. Greiner, “Evolution and Revolution as Organi- zations Grow,” Harvard Business Review 50 (July–
August 1972): 37–46; L. Greiner and V. Schein, Power and Organizational Development: Mobilizing Power to Implement Change (Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley, 1988).
52. E. Lawler III, Pay and Organization Development (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1981); E. Lawler III, High-Involvement Management (San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1986); E. Lawler III, From the Ground Up (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996); E. Lawler III, Rewarding Excellence (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000).
20 CHAPTER 1 General Introduction to Organization Development
53. A. Raia and N. Margulies, “Organization Development: Issues, Trends, and Prospects,” in Human Systems Development, eds. R. Tannenbaum, N. Margulies, and F. Massarik (San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 1985), 246–72; N. Margulies and A. Raia,
“Some Reflections on the Values of Organizational Development,” Academy of Management OD Newsletter 1 (Winter 1988): 9–11.
54. P. Vaill, “OD as a Scientific Revolution,” in Contemporary Organization Development: Current Thinking and Applications (Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman, 1985), 28–41; C. Lundberg, “On Organization Development Interventions: A General Systems-Cybernetic Per- spective,” in Systems Theory for Organizational Development, ed. T. Cummings (Chichester, England: John Wiley &
Sons, 1980), 247–71; P. Frost, L. Moore, M. Louis, and C. Lundberg, Reframing Organizational Culture (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1991); D. Jamieson and J. O’Mara, Managing Work- force 2000 (San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1991); D. Jamieson and C. Worley, “The Practice of Organization Development,” in Handbook of Organization Development. ed. T. Cummings (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2007); B. Bunker and B. Alban, “Introduction to the Special Issue on Large Group Interventions,” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 41 (2005): 9–15; B. Bunker, B. Alban, and R. Lewicki, “Ideas in Currency and Practice: Has the Well Gone Dry,” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 40 (2004): 403–23.
55. L. D. Brown and J. Covey, “Development Organi- zations and Organization Development: Toward an Expanded Paradigm for Organization Development,”
in Research in Organizational Change and Development, vol. 1, eds. R. Woodman and W. Pasmore (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1987), 59–87.
56. T. Cummings and S. Srivastva, Management of Work:
A Socio-Technical Systems Approach (San Diego: University Associates, 1977); T. Cummings, “Transorganizational Develop ment,” in Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 6, eds. B. Staw and L. Cummings (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1984), 367–422; T. Cummings and S. Mohrman, “Self-Designing Organizations: Towards Implementing Quality-of-Work-Life Innovations,” in Research in Organizational Change and Development, vol. 1, eds. R. Woodman and W. Pasmore (Greenwich, Conn.:
JAI Press, 1987), 275–310.
57. M. Elden, “Sociotechnical Systems Ideas as Public Policy in Norway: Empowering Participation through Worker-Managed Change,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 22 (1986): 239–55.
58. R. Woodman and W. Pasmore, Research in Organizational Change and Development, vols. 1–16 (Oxford: Elsevier, 1987–2007); W. Pasmore, C.
Haldeman, and A. Shani, “Sociotechnical Systems: A North American Reflection on Empirical Studies in North America,” Human Relations 32 (1982): 1179–
204; W. Pasmore and J. Sherwood, Sociotechnical
Systems: A Source Book (San Diego: University Associates, 1978); J. Porras, Stream Analysis: A Powerful Way to Diagnose and Manage Organizational Change (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1987);
J. Porras, P. Robertson, and L. Goldman, “Organization Development: Theory, Practice, and Research,” in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2d ed., ed. M. Dunnette (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1990); J. Collins and J. Porras, Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Companies (New York: Harper Business, 1997); A. Shani, S. Mohrman, W. Pasmore, B. Stymne, and N. Adler (eds.), Handbook of Collabo- rative Management Research (Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications, 2007).
59. P. Block, Flawless Consulting (Austin, Tex.: Learning Concepts, 1981); P. Block, The Empowered Manager:
Positive Political Skills at Work (San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 1987); P. Block, Stewardship (San Francisco:
Berrett-Koehler, 1994); P. Block, The Answer to How Is Yes (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2002).
60. K. Murrell, “Organization Development Experi- ences and Lessons in the United Nations Development Program,” Organization Development Journal 12 (1994):
1–16; J. Vogt and K. Murrell, Empowerment in Organizations (San Diego: Pfeiffer, 1990); K. Murrell and M. Meredith, Empowering Employees (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2000); M. Miller, S. Fitzgerald, K. Murrell, J. Preston, and R. Ambekar, “Appreciative Inquiry in Building a Transcultural Strategic Alliance:
The Case of a Biotech Alliance Between a U.S.
Multinational and an Indian Family Business,” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 41 (2005): 91–111.
61. S. Mohrman, S. Cohen, and A. Mohrman, Designing Team-Based Organizations (San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1995); S. Cohen and G. Ledford Jr.,
“The Effectiveness of Self-Managing Teams: A Quasi- Experiment,” Human Relations 47 (1994): 13–43;
G. Ledford and E. Lawler, “Research on Employee Participation: Beating a Dead Horse?” Academy of Management Review 19 (1994): 633–36; G. Ledford, E. Lawler, and S. Mohrman, “The Quality Circle and Its Variations,” in Productivity in Organizations: New Perspectives from Industrial and Organizational Psychology, eds. J. Campbell, R. Campbell, and Associates (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988); Mohrman, Ledford, Mohrman, et al., Large-Scale Organization Change.
62. Worley, Hitchin, and Ross, Integrated Strategic Change; E. Lawler and C. Worley, Built to Change (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006).
63. D. Cooperrider, “Positive Image, Positive Action:
The Affirmative Basis for Organizing,” in Appreciative Management and Leadership, eds. S. Srivastva, D. Cooperrider, and Associates (San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1990); D. Cooperrider and S. Srivastva,
“Appreciative Inquiry in Organizational Life,” in Organizational Change and Development, vol. 1, eds.
R. Woodman and W. Pasmore (Greenwich, Conn.: