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instruction are increasingly accepted but still far from being treated as an estab- lished educational approach.
While radio, film, and TV became accepted media for education, IM did not catch on in the same manner. One of the earliest attempts can be traced back to the nineteenth century, when the key component of VR systems, stereoscopic viewing, became popular and allowed students to see and learn about remote places. This approach was popular in schools in mid-twentieth century (Saettler, 1990) but was then displaced by other technologies such as TV. Only now do we see a rebirth of interest in IM with the new generation of IM technologies.
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collective. Up to 500 people gather simultaneously to watch a video-based experi- ence in a setting similar to a cinema.
AR Edition and Distribution
The editorial process for AR content differs somewhat from that of VR and is mainly provided through dedicated apps and networks, provided by firms, such as Facebook, by independent providers via app stores for Android and iOS devices or from firms in the game sector. Additionally, new options are emerging, such as a partnership between the Disney animation studio, Pixar, and the software company Adobe, as tools for creating and editing content, as well as with Apple, as a provider of devices and a distribution infrastructure. This partnership illustrates a move for cooperation on a larger scale.
The estimated shipment of AR devices was 500,000 in 2016 and 2017, which is far behind the sales of VR headsets (statista.com). This small user base makes growth possible going forward. Besides platforms, such as Facebook, Sketchfab, or the Firefox browser, apps in usual app stores for Android and iOS are the main dis- tribution channel.
MR Edition and Distribution
MR is a blend of computer-generated worlds with existing or photographed envi- ronments. The experiences are provided in the form of apps. Some of these apps also run on devices, such as HoloLens or Magic Leap, which allow for a projection of content on transparent glasses. This way the audience can still see their surround- ings while having an MR experience.
As of August 2018, MR is still at an early stage. Microsoft HoloLens is currently intended only for professionals. The US-based startup Magic Leap has lately launched a head-mounted virtual retina display called Magic Leap One. As of now, these MR technologies are unaffordable for the mass market. Yet, we may assume that the cost will quickly decrease, following the path of other new technologies.
MR content is mainly distributed through the stores of the platforms related to devices, including HoloLens, Windows MR, and Magic Leap. According to Microsoft, the sales numbers of HoloLens are less than a hundred thousand per year, as of 2017 (Warren, 2017). The HoloLens applications are often used for profes- sional purposes; therefore, they are not distributed to general public.
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Resemblances Between EM and IM
One aspect that is similar in the past evolution of EM and the current path of IM is the extent of time it took for a media technology to become established. It took several decades for each type of EM to reach a wide audience and become of inter- est in educational settings. Decades of false starts and unmet anticipation toward the then-new technology transformed initial overconfidence into skepticism toward each of the media. This is similar to how many people feel about IM today.
Another similarity between the evolution of EM and IM, seen predominantly since the beginning of the most recent wave of IM in 2013, is how the creation and distribution of content takes place through modifications of the processes employed in cinema, TV, and especially in video games. IM experiences created in game engines resemble videogames and they are prepared for publishing and distribution using similar methods.
The distribution aspect is divided into online, for streaming and downloading content, and offline for location-based experiences. The shared, location-based experiences, in particular, strikingly resemble those in the early days of cinema, television, and video games.
The Current State of IM in Education
Education is said to be the fourth largest sector in IM investment. However, it is unclear how much of this interest is driven by the novelty of the medium or by the commercial push from the IM industry and how much it stems from the desire of teachers to take advantage of the actual learning potential of IM.
As of July 2018, there are several dozen educational IM apps available. Their variety, however, is rather limited. Most applications are dedicated to teaching three-dimensional learning material, such as geometry, stellar cartography, engi- neering, and anatomy. The areas of initial application are consistent with previous academic research on the effectiveness of stereoscopic images for learning, which largely suggests that learning with 3D is most useful for inherently spatial content (McIntire, Havig, & Geiselman, 2014).
Another popular educational use of VR applications is “expeditions.” In these apps, users are able to visit distant places, settings, or times and immerse themselves in relatively authentic settings that may be otherwise inaccessible (e.g., Mars or ancient Rome). The subject areas for which these apps are most applicable include geography, history, and language learning.
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