Garfinkel (1967: 78) says: ‘Not only is the underlying pattern derived from its individual documentary evidences, but the individual docu- mentary evidences, in their turn, are interpreted on the basis of “what is known” about the underlying pattern. Each is used to elaborate the other’. Denzin (1978) identifies four types of triangulation:
1. Data triangulation: the use of a variety of data sources in a study.
2. Investigator triangulation: the use of several different researchers or evaluators.
3. Theory triangulation: the use of multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of data.
4. Methodological triangulation: the use of multiple methods to study a single problem.
This research uses two of these methods to illustrate triangulation. Data triangulation is used through two further qualitative studies, one of the sales perceptions of sales staff at Parteisch UK and the other of market
segment and customer perceptions in the UK market. Methodological triangulation is used through the quantitative study of perceptions of vision and mission of senior staff at Parteisch International utilizing univariate, bivariate and multivariate analysis. Different sources of information should be used to cross-validate findings, patterns, and conclusions (Patton, 1980). In particular, and relevant to the context and nature of this research, Duncan (1989: 235) observes that triangu- lation forms part of the practical application and understanding of phenomenological research:
Triangulation is a practical technique and should not be restricted to the arsenals of researchers. Different signals, even when they initially confuse us, eventually can provide us with useful infor- mation.
Managers believe in organizational cultures, as do organizational researchers. Before executives can confidently devote resources and time to the management of culture, more accurate and innovative ways of defining and measuring it are needed.
Triangulation may help us better understand the phenomenon of organizational culture. It is not a perfect tool, but the manager who uses it can be more confident in his or her efforts to come to grips with this important and exciting aspect of organization.
Triangulation attempts to verify the data gathering and analysis approach of a methodology: ‘A multi-paradigm approach to theory building can be a means for establishing correspondence between para- digms and theory construction efforts’ (Gioia and Pitre, 1990: 584).
Through the employment of three further studies, using both qualitative and quantitative methods, there is a closer assimilation between the propositions of the research and the theoretical constructs and approaches of this book.
Nelson, Treichler and Grossberg (1992: 4) say: ‘Qualitative research is many things at the same time. It is multi-paradigmatic in focus. Its practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multi-method approach.
They are committed to the naturalistic perspective and to the interpret- ive understanding of human experience. At the same time, the field is inherently political and shaped by multiple ethical and political pos- itions.’ Silverman (1994: 156) suggests ‘comparing different kinds of data (e.g., quantitative and qualitative) and different methods (e.g., observation and interviews) to see whether they corroborate one another . . . this form of comparison, called triangulation, derives from
In Pursuit of the Paradigm 115 navigation, where different bearings give the correct position of an object’. Richardson (1994: 522) writes of crystallization that:
combines symmetry and substance with an infinite variety of shapes, substances, transmutations, multidimensionalities, and angles of approach. Crystals grow, change, alter, but are not amorphous . . . Crystallization provides us with a deepened, complex, thoroughly partial, understanding of the topic. Paradoxically, we know more and doubt what we know.
Whilst recognizing ‘there are many who practice integration by merging paradigms without respecting their differences . . . paradigm interplay produces a new form of understanding’, Schultz and Hatch (1996: 535) argue that ‘paradigm boundaries are permeable’ and ‘trans- position allows the findings of one paradigm to be recontextualized and reinterpreted in such a way that they inform the research conducted within a different paradigm’. The multi-paradigm approach is helpful because they may help to ‘explore theoretical and organizational com- plexity and extend the scope, relevance and creativity’ (Lewis and Grimes, 1999: 673). Arguing in support of quantification, Langley (1999: 698) argues for a ‘combination with other approaches that allow contextualization of the abstract data, adding nuances of interpretation and confirming the mechanics of the mathematical model with direct evidence’. A triangulation using a mix of different qualitative and quan- tification approaches from the ‘thick’ research is more likely to contribute to the development of impactful propositions and theories.
It is worth rehearsing some wider views of triangulation:
‘The purpose of the exercise is to extend the possibilities for producing knowledge’ (Flick, 1998: 229). ‘Triangulation has been generally consid- ered a process of using multiple perceptions to clarify meaning, verify- ing the repeatability of an observation or interpretation . . . triangulation serves also to clarify meaning by identifying different ways the phenomenon is being seen’ (Stake, 2000: 443). ‘The use of multiple methods, or triangulation, reflects an attempt to secure an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon in question . . . Triangulation is the display of multiple, refracted realities simultaneously’ (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000: 5).
Qualitative research is ‘inherently multi-method in focus’ (Flick, 1998: 229) and triangulation is ‘an alternative to validation’ (230). This research uses a multi-method approach to the case study and, in particular, though not exclusively, data and methodological triangulation.
This approach leads not only to broadening of theory, but also to the construction of alternative theories (Gioia and Pitre, 1990). Triangula- tion in this research is used not only as a practical technique (Duncan, 1989) to produce different understanding (Flick, 1998) and clarify meaning relating to the propositions of the research, but it is also used as a validation tool to corroborate (Silverman, 1994) and verify (Stake, 2000) the suggested meanings of the observations. A multi-method approach is made to triangulate the research findings of the case study using two qualitative studies, and another quantitative study. Each of these approaches attempts to promote further understanding and clari- fication of the propositions and the rationale of the research as examined thus far by the literature review and the case study.
Methodology of triangulation
Sales perceptions of sales staff
The aim of this approach was to understand how the perceptions of sales staff might influence competitive positioning strategy. In particular, perceptions about the company, the products, the customers’ view of the company and products, the customers, and the competitors are indica- tive of understanding, values and beliefs. In turn this is an indicator of competitive positioning at a strategic as well as an operational level.
Thirteen semi-depth, semi-structured, face-to-face interviews were conducted with the sales staff. A brief structured questionnaire was used as the basis for face-to-face interviews to assist in focusing and recording the expression of views. The data collected was qualitative and key issues and the strength of issues were identified from the sales person’s standpoint by the use of content analysis.
The comments of these sales staff were in response to specific ques- tions. Validity has to take account of the circumstances of change that had taken place in the organization and the behaviours and reactions to a new and uncertain future. However, the questions were asked in a seemingly constructive and relaxed environment of involvement and participation and reflect the broad discussions in public discussions and private conversations. Close examination of individual responses do seem to show consistent patterns in the cohort.
Market and customer perceptions
The purpose of this approach was to better understand how the differ- ent market segments function independently, how companies might
In Pursuit of the Paradigm 117 deliver customer values and satisfaction and how collectively, these seg- ments are likely to affect a competitive positioning strategy that might be adopted. Specifically, it was hoped to understand the process of listing or approval by distributors of products, the seasonal nature of purchasing, the quantities and types of products bought, and the decision making process. In particular, it is important to understand the ‘values’ that buyers bought and the ‘satisfactions’ being sought including designs, packaging, and performance of both product and company.
Fifteen semi-depth, semi-structured, face-to-face and telephone inter- views were conducted with the buyers at their place of work. These included nine major retailers, two hospitals, and four wholsesale suppliers.
The data collected was qualitative and the key issues and the strength of issues were identified from the buyers’ standpoint by the use of content analysis. The rigour of the research process uncovered the relevant, import- ant, and therefore valid issues relating to the purchase of the products.
Senior staff perceptions of vision and mission
The intention was to understand how senior staff perceive aspects and applications of vision and mission within the company as well as other features of the business. These kinds of insight may confirm a linkage with positioning as a determinant of strategy to support and/ or amplify previous qualitative research of this study.
A pilot set of questions was put together following observations from the literature review. There were factual questions relating to length of service and functional role, but also the use of a seven-point Likert scale questioning the agreement or disagreement with the importance of spe- cific aspects indicated by the literature review and phenomenological studies. These questions related to the long term future success of the business. Twenty-one senior managers from marketing and sales as well as production functions were asked questions in face-to-face discussion.
The raw data obtained was coded and analyzed using SPSS Version 10 software package. The data was subjected to univariate, bivariate, and multivariate analysis including frequency analysis and standard deviation, factor analysis and cross tabulation.
The prepared data was tabulated for simple frequency distribution for all variables. Standard deviation was used to identify unusual range width of variables. Exploratory factor analysis was used to reduce data, by revealing factors that explained the covariance within the data (Hair, Anderson, Tatham and Black 1998). There are a number of possible methods for extracting factors and the method of choice in this instance was principle component analysis with Varimax rotation. The Varimax
method of factor rotation was favoured since it allows the factors to remain uncorrelated with each other thus yielding ‘clear’ factors (Nunnally, 1978). This approach can empirically summarize data by extracting possible variance (Gorsuch, 1983; Alt, 1990).
The research process included twenty-one senior managers. These were principally managers in the role of Managing Director, Sales Director/Manager, or Production Director/Manager and therefore the relevant population to identify perceptions of vision and mission and other features at a strategic level. The low number of senior managers has to be recognized as a low sample size and the interpretation of the analysed data has to be seen correspondingly as inferential rather than conclusive. The validity of the conclusions however should not be seen alone but in the context of the wider research undertaken and discussed in previous chapters.
The factor analysis technique was used. ‘The greatest limitation of factor analysis is that it is a highly subjective process. The determin- ation of the number of factors, their interpretation, and the rotation to select, all involve subjective judgement’ (Aaker, Kumar and Day, 1998:
596). These authors suggest that the sample might be divided randomly into two groups and rotated to determine if the same factors emerge leading to greater confidence that the results are not a statistical accident. In this instance, the size of the sample and the small number of variables means that this would not be appropriate. Factors should be conceptually meaningful and empirically useful (Briggs and Cheek, 1986). The factors that emerged in this study, though subjectively labelled, are generally consistent with this assertion although, due to the small sample size, have to be taken in the wider context of the total research. The use of factor analysis as confirmation of previous evidence is confirmatory or exploratory and therefore valid (Miller, 1977). The results of factor analysis are therefore used as a means of confirmation to support or otherwise the prepositional outcomes of the case study.