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(above) TheincreasingappreciationofAfrican polyrhythmshas created ademandforlivemusic.During any spring-summerseason,the soundsofMajekFashek, SoukousStars,AsterA weke,andLuckyDubecanbeheard atconcert hallsandmusicfestivalsthroughoutthecity.In additiontothe Africanmusicianswhovisitannuallyfrom AfricaandEurope,anumberoflocalgroupshavesprung up. ItadiBonneyandtheBakulaBandplayAfrican highlifeandsoukousmusic. The recordings of Mr.

Bonney,anexilefromTogo,includeMayiAfricaand I'Man,bothproducedinWashington.

Photo courtesyItadiBonneyProductions

(left)Largemusicstorescarry Africanmusicofinternationally

knownpopularartists likeFelaMi, MiriamMakeba,andSalifKeita.But newspecialtyretailerssuch asSimba InternationalRecords aremakinga widerrange ofAfricanmusic,artists,

andvideosavailable toarea residents. Photo by Harold Dorwin

(left)Muchof the production ofAfricanmusicinthearea hasbeenthe effortofenterprising individuals.Ibrahim Change Bah and^hisAfricanMusicGallery Productions, for example,havenot only providedaretailoutlet formusic butalsoproducedSyranMbenzaontheCDBana,the SoukousStarsinSoukousAttack, ThierryMantukaand

(jerryDialunganainClassicO.K. Jazz,andTabu Ley RochereauinBabyPancake-Aba. Eddie Asante'slabors producedTimelessHighlifebyC.K.MannandNkaibyPat

ThomasofGhana.Lately,System77ofYawAcheampong SekyerehasbeenreproducingandmarketingGhanaian highlifemusic.In thisphotograph, Ibrahimspins discson hisweeklyradioprogram on WDCU.Photo by Harold Dorwin

audiotapeandvideotapecassettes,

CD. community

radio, andcable televisionprograms.Eventslikeindependence day dancesbring togetherpeople

who

have

come

tothe United Statesfrom the

same

country oforigin.In the

Washington

area,immigrantAfricanscelebratethemselves by

coming

togetherandsharing traditions within a

new

community.

They

createethnic music and dancetroupesto educatetheirchildrenandothers unfamiliarwiththeir culturalheritage.

Tastesinmusic and

knowledge

ofdance can be markers

thatdefine boundariesbetween

community

insidersand outsiders.

They

canalsobridgecommunities. Jamaican reggae music,forexample,in

which

Ethiopiaisacentral

symbol

of Africanworldheritage, is

embraced

by

young

Ethiopian immigrantsin Washington,D.C., and performed as partofthemusicalrepertoire of Nigerian.

Gambian,

and Ghanaianmusicians.

The

messagesof African music have found

many

an earin metropolitanWashington.

The

photographsanddescriptionsthatfollow illustrate

some

of thevaried contexts of Africanmusic inthe area.

Cece Modupe Fadope

isa

Nigerian-bom

journalist

and

hostoftheradio

program

"African Perspectives"on

WPFW.

Inadditiontohis roleastheoriginator

and

host

ofWPFW's

"African

Rhythms and

Extensions,^"Kofi^Kissi

Dompere, who

isof

Ghanaian

origin, teacheseconomics at

Howard

University. The essay by

Ann Ohimba

on

com-

munityradio_profilestheseauthorsatgreaterlength.

(above) SomalioudmusicianHasanGure playsfor friendsataninformal gatheringin FallsChurch,Virginia.

TheysingsongsfromtheirchildhoodinSomalia,songs composedduringtheirstruggles forindependence,songs ofpraiseandadviceto theirsonsanddaughters,and songsoftheirexperiencesin exile. Photo by Harold Dorwin

(right)Ethnicandregionalcommunityorganizationslike the VoltaCluborganizetraditionalEwemusicand dance groupstocreatean atmosphereof familyfrom which membersderive support, assistance,andcultural fulfillmentintimeof need, sorrow, orjoy(seeJoan Frosch-Schroder1991). Photo by EboAnsah

(above)Youngmembersofan EthiopianChristiancongregation playthekebero, atraditionaldrum, andsingduringaservicecelebrating thenewyear.Photo by HaroldDorwin

Smithsonian Festival of American Folklife 49

Nile Ethiopian

Ensemble: Profile of

an African Immigrant Music & Dance Group

BettyJ.Belanus,

from

research

by

Tesfaye

Lemma & Dagnachew Abebe

orethan 40,000Washington-arearesidents claimthe Ethiopian regionas their birthplace.

ITheyaremembersofseveral culturally, religiously,linguistically,andethnicallydiverse communities.ThelargestisAmharic, but the areaalso includesTigrean,Oromo,Eritrean,andGurage. Tesfaye Lemma,alongtime advisorandcommunityscholarof theAfricanImmigrantFolklifeProject,isthefounderof the CenterforEthiopianArtsandCultureandoftheNile EthiopianEnsemble.Thecenter,likemanyotherAfrican immigrantorganizations,promotestraditionalculture forthebenefitoftheiryouthandtheunderstandingof the generalAmericancommunity.And,likemany

Africanimmigrantmusicand dancegroups,the ensemblepresentstraditionsfrommanypeoples

—

in

Suggested Reading

Donnedintraditionalclothingandcarrying traditional instruments,the NileEthiopianEnsembleposesfora photo. Photo courtesyNileEthiopianEnsemble

thiscase,thosefromtheHornof Africa

—

intheir performances.

Theensembleoftenperforms with Seleshe Damessae,amasterofthe kerar(six-stringedlyre),who

learnedtoplayfromhisfather.Damessaespent four yearsstudying thetraditionsofthe Azmaris,itinerant performersinnorthernEthiopia,from

whom

heis

descended.Henowteachesyoungapprenticestomake andplay theirownkerarshereinWashington,D.C.

Mostmembersoftheensemblestartedperforming asyoungstersinEthiopia."Ienjoyeddancing withmy

friendsduring holidayslikeEaster,NewYear,Christmas, andalsoweddings.Manypeoplefromthe

neighborhoodadmiredmytalent,and^Icontinuedmy

singinganddancingcareerinschool," saiddancer AbebeBelew,whowasborninGondarProvince.

LikesingerSelamawitNega,mostfuturemembersof theensembleinthelate1970swererecruitedorforced to joinmusicand dancegroups sponsored by the former Ethiopiangovernment"toeducateforpropaganda purposes."DancerAlmaze Getahunrecallsthatwhen

hisfamilyobjectedtothis,"Myfatherwaslabeleda revolutionary,andthey senthimtojail."Duringthis time,membersoftheensemblelearnedsongsand dancesfrommanyEthiopian ethnicgroups.

Mostoftheensemblememberseventuallymovedto AddisAbaba,thecapitalofEthiopia,andjoined musical groups that toured the MiddleEast,Europe,andthe UnitedStates.TesfayeLemmadefectedtothe United Stateswhileonatourin1987.As musiciansand dancersarrivedintheWashingtonarea,Lemmaformed theensemble.And,inaccordance with theAmharic proverb,"Kesbekes inkulalbe igruyehedal"(Slowly, slowly,evenaneggwillwalk),thegrouphasdeveloped a loyalaudiencefortheirperformancesinthe

Washington,D.C, areaandbeyond.

Barlow, Sean,andEyreBanning. 1995.Afropop:AnIllustratedGuideto ContemporaryAfricanMusic. Edison,NewJersey:Chartwell Books.

Broughton,Simon,MarkEllingham,DavidMuddyman,andRichardTrillo, eds.1994.TheRoughGuidetoWorldMusic.London:RoughGuides.

Frosch-Schroder, Joan.1991.Things ofSignificanceDoNot Vanish:Dance andthe Transmission of CultureintheGhanaianCommunity. UCLA JournalofDanceEthnology15:54-67.

Lemma,Tesfaye.1991.EthiopianMusical Instruments.Washington,D.C:

published by the author.

,ed.Newsletterof the CenterforEthiopianArtsandCulture.

P.O.Box73236,Washington,DC 20056-0236.

Ontheweekends, musiciansfrom neighboring regions ofTunisia,Morocco,Egypt,andAlgeria sometimesstaylateatlocalNorthAfricanrestaurantslikeCasablancaperformingmusic together ininformalsessionsattendedbyfamilyandfriendsfromhome.Newgroupsform from such gatherings.TheKasbahBand, musiciansofMoroccanorigin,perform bothMoroccanshaabiand Algerianraipopularmusicata holidaybanguetof the Algerian-AmericanAssociationof Greater Washington,D.C. Photo by HaroldDorwin

A ^{Taste of}

Home:

African Immigrant Foodways

Nomvula Mashoai Cook &

BettyJ.

Belanus I

n almostallAfrican culturesfoodisa traditional art. Simpleor elaborate, frugalor opulent, foodplaysavitalrolein affirming individual ethnic identitiesandin modeling cultural diversity. Recent African immigrantstothe

Washington

metropolitan area

come

from different regionsofthecontinent.

And,astheycreateataste of

home

through theirfood- ways,they discoverthe similaritiesanddifferencesintheirfellowimmigrants' foods.

They

also

come

to

know

the

common

problemsthey sharecooking"authentic" dishesandrecreatingthecon- textsof servingthem. Immigrant groupssustaincontinuity by cooking everyday mealssimilartothosethatnourish familiesin Africa,by usingfoodinthe contextoftradi- tionalcelebrations,and byestablishingAfrican restaurants.

Mealtimes inAfrica bring familiestogether: thegener- ation gapbetween

young

and oldcan bebridged;incon- versations,children

may

learn proverbs,theirmeanings, andother

wisdom

fromtheirelders. Here intheUnited States,however, Africanimmigrant familiesareoftentoo busytosit

down

toatraditional-stylemeal every day of theweek,orsometimes even once aweek. Butgreat effort is

made

tointroducetochildrentraditional foodsandthe etiquette ofeating.

While

mostingredientsneeded for traditionalfoodsare

now

available in theWashington, D.C., areaatspecialized grocerystoresserving African, Caribbean. Latin

Amer-

ican,and Asiancooks,this

was

notalwaysthecasefor earlierimmigrants. OlaniyiAreke. a film

maker

originally fromNigeria, recallstrying to findsomething inan

Amer-

icangrocerystoreresemblingthe staple /m/m,

made

in

West

Africafrom cassavaflour.

The

closestthinghe could find

was

Bisquick!

Some

African immigrantswith

enough

yard spaceand accesstoseedsfrom

home grow

their

own

vegetablesand herbs.Differentvarietiesof greens,

many

of

them

notto befound even in specialty stores, arepopulargarden items. Sally

Tsuma,

originallyfromtheKalenjian region ofKenya,

grows

fivetypes ofgreensaroundher

home

near Catholic University. Sallycooksa largebatch of

Membersof the SaintMarkCopticOrthodox Churchin Fairfax,Virginia,celebrateChristmas withavarietyof traditional foods. Photo

©

RolandFreeman

greenson the

weekend

andserves

them

throughout the week, heating

them

inthemicro- wave.

The

correct

com-

binationof greensisthe

secret tothetaste,asSally says,

"When you cook

[the greens] alone,ittasteslike

something'smissing."

Comfort

foods forAfrican immigrantsare stapleslike fiifu,ortheSouthernAfrican

papa (made

from corn

flour),roughlyequivalentto

American mashed

potatoes.

Typical dishes

accompanying

the staples

—

depending

on

theregionof Africa

you

hailfrom

—

are stewsand soups

made

with

palm

oil,pureedpeanuts.

dried orfreshfish,okra, tomatoes, onions, hot pep- pers, black-eyedpeas,

lentils,

many

differentkindsof meat, and anarrayof spices.Butthere are

many

foodsconsidered

more

exotic by most

Americans

^thatalsocount

among

thecomfort foodsof

some

Africans: goat's head,forinstance,or lamb'sintestines.

Foods

served oftenreflectacombination ofcultures, asDorothyOsei-Kuffuor,originallyfrom Ghana,says:

"The main

dishes in

my

houseareAfrican, though thechildrenenjoy

some American

dishes, too."

LivinginAmerica,

some

African immigrant

women

breaktraditional foodtaboos.

Nsedu

Onyile wrotein a Washington Postarticle:

Let

me

tell

you

aboutthe goat head.

Where

I

come

from, the

women

fix andserveitinabig platterbutonlythe

men

are entitled to eatit.

As

a child,Ifantasized aboutthetasteofthegoathead and couldnot waitforan opportunitytoeatone.

VeronicaAbu,originallyfrom Ghana, puts thefinishing touchesonadisho/garifoto,astewmadewith roasted cassavapowderandblack-eyedpeas. Photo by Ena Fox

Smithsonian Festival of American Folklife 51

(above)^SallyTsumauses everyavailable sectionofthe frontyardof herhome nearCatholic UniversityinWashington,B.C.,togrowgreenslikethoseshe enjoyedinKenya. Photo by HaroldDorwin

(left)Hermela KebedepreparesatraditionalEthiopiancoffeeceremonyfor friendsatherhomeⁱⁿSilverSpring. Photo by Harold Dorwin

Now

^inatotaldeclarationofindependence, I

buy

a goatfromtheslaughterhouse, fix theheadfirst,

andsit

down

tocatch

up

on missedyears. Ieat everybitofthis delicacy,appreciating

what

those

men

enjoyed duringtheirroundtable goatcon- ferencesinoursunny yard backin Nigeria.

IntheWashington, D.C.,area, suchsplendidAfrican foodsare

more

oftenservedatfamily or

community

celebrations.Every majorrite ofpassage

—

birth,coming- of-age,marriage,anddeath

—

iscelebrated withspecific foods. Atatraditional

naming ceremony

in the

Yoruba community,

for instance, a trayofsymbolicritualfoodsis

preparedthatincludessalt(forjoyandhappiness),

palm

oil,colanut,bittercolaandalligatorpepper(formedicinal purposes),and

honey

(forsweetness). Aftertheceremony, ameal includingfriedplantains,

two

ricedishes,goatstew with/w/i(, boiledyam, and chickenisservedtoallthe guests.

Othertypesofcelebrationsbringcommunitiestogether seasonally.

One example

isthe braai, aSouthAfrican cookoutcelebratedin the

summer.

Typically,the

women

congregate inthekitchen,cookingand singing.

The men bond

witheachotherandwith theirsonswhilepreparing imbuzine

mvu

(goatand lamb)for thebarbecuegrill with such savorycondimentsasSouthAfrican curry orcumin.

The

braai usually starts at

noon

and

may

lastuntil mid- night.Besideseatingandreconnecting with old^friends, peoplemightlistentoSouthAfricantownshipmusic.

Conversationmightcenteraroundpolitical,economic,or socialissuesandtheireffect

on

people back

home.

Childrenareencouragedto play

games

suchaslebekere (hide-and-seek).

Community-bridging celebrationsthatarehybrids of

American

andAfrican traditions alsoinvolvefood.

At

the

Cook

householdin

suburbanMaryland,this year's

Kwanzaa

celebration (anAfrican-

American

holiday)brought together Africanimmigrantsfromall partsofthe continent, AfricanAmericans,and White Americans.

The

food

was

potluckandincluded roastturkey,Christmascookies,Swedish-style meatballs, andaricedish from an Egyptianguest.

The

centerpiece dishes, however,werecookedwithgreatloving care(andno visiblerecipes)by

Mimi

Green,originallyfrom Nigerin

West

Africa.

They

includedyassachicken(aSenegalese dish),egusispinach (spinach withground

melon

seeds),and mafi^(meatballsinapeanutbuttersauce),allservedwith

mounds

ofperfectwhiterice.

As

isthecustomin

many

Africancultures, alibationofferingof drinkforthe ancestors

was

pouredonthegroundbeforethemeal

was

eaten.

Otheroccasions bring generations togetherandreinforce language and customs.

Amharic women

inthe

Washing-

ton,D.C., area

meet

atoneanother's

homes

for acoffee ceremony.

The

coffeeisroastedand preparedinaspecial potand servedwithcrunchygrain snacks.

Kenyan women

intheareatryto

meet

oncea

month

forchai(tea)and

mandazi

(doughnuts).

Restaurants offering

many

African cuisineshave

mushroomed

aroundthemetropolitan

Washington

areain thepastten years.

Many

find their

homes

intheethnically diverse

Adams Morgan

areaofthe cityincluding well- establishedEthiopianrestaurants like

Meskerem,

Addis Ababa, and

The Red

Sea,aswellas

newer

ventures such asthe

Casa

Africana,

which

serves

West

African food,and the South AfricanCafe. Cecelia Vilakazi, owner/prop- rietoroftheSouthAfrican Cafe,

whose

parentsemigrated from SouthAfricatotheUnitedStates

when

she

was

a teenager, explains her motivation tostartherrestaurantin

1995: "I lookedand I

saw

^Ethiopianshaverestaurants,

peoplefrom Ghana,Nigeria,andBrazil,but no South Africa.

So

thetiming

was

righttointroducethe rich culinaryspreadthat'stherein SouthAfrica. I

saw

an opportunityand saidthis

was

somethingI'vealways wantedtodo."

Theserestaurants,ofcourse,caternotonlytoAfrican immigrantclientsbut also to culinarilyadventurous Americans.

Some

attempt,therefore,is

made

toserve foodsthatappealtoawide spectrum ofpeople. Cecelia admitsittakes

some

educationforthose unfamiliar with

some

ofthedishesservedattheSouthAfrican Cafe, such asbobotie,ameatloafwith curry spicesandraisins. "It's tasty,but

you

haveto

grow

upeatingit.

When

people

do

try it,

we show them how

toeatit,and theylikeit."

She

hastoned

down

theheavily meat-orientedSouthAfrican dietto

accommodate American

tastes.

Therearealsofoodspreparedexclusivelyforabusy African immigrantclientele. Atlunchtime, taxicabsline the frontofthe

Akosombo

restaurantnearChinatown, wheretheAfrican-borndriverscanget cafeteria-style servicelikethatin the restaurantsbackinGhana. African immigrantcaterers,

some

workingoutoftheir

home

kitchens,delivertraditional foodsto

wedding

receptions,

naming

ceremonies,and birthday orgraduation parties.

Whether cooked

asa simple dishat

home,

foranelaborate celebration,orfor sale to the public, Africanimmigrant foods

embody

culturalconnections.

They

create acon- tinuity with

custom

back

home,

andthey reflect thecir-

cumstancesoflivingina

new

place.Likeother aspectsof

Africanimmigrantfolklifein the

Washing-

ton,D.C., area,

foodways

arecontinually recreatedandoffer aglimpse of a

com-

munityin theprocessof defining itself.

Nomvula Mashoai Cook was

born in

SouthAfrica

and

raisedinLesotho. Sheis

arecentgraduate ofStrayer College with a Bachelor ofSciencedegreein business administration

and

willbecontinuingher studiesat

Howard

UniversityinAfrican studiesthis fall. She has been a

member

of theAfrican

Immigrant

FolklifeStudy

group

since 1994.

Betty_J.

Belanus

isa completenoviceat Africancookingbuthas enjoyedeatingher

way

through theresearchforthis article.

Sheisan EducationSpecialist atthe Center forFolklife

Programs &

^Cultural

Studies

and

the

Co-Curator

_oftheAfrican Immigrant Program.

Suggested Readings

Brown,LindaK.,andKayMussell.

1984. EthnicandRegional FoodwaysintheUnitedStates.

Knoxville:Universityof TennesseePress.

Hafner,Dorinda.1993.fefeor"

Africa.Berkeley:TenSpeed Press.

Grant,Rosamund.1995.Tasteof Africa.NewYork:Smithmark Publishers.

Kirlin,Katherine,andThomas

Kirlin.1991.SmithsonianFolklife Cookbook.Washington,D.C.:

SmithsonianInstitution Press.

Onyile,Nsedu. 1995.^I'llHavethe Goat'sHead,Please.

WashingtonPost.5March.

Kele Wele: Ghanaian

Spicy Fried Ripened Plantains

2-3 well-ripened yellow plantains 4-5 cupsofoilfordeepfrying

1level tsp.groundhot,redpepper

1mediumonion,chopped

1garlicclove,chopped

thumb-sizepiece of fresh ginger,chopped;or 1level tsp.groundginger(ground ginger does not give thedishasfullataste)

salttotaste

Increaseingredientsby 1/4whenaddingmore

plantains totherecipe.

Peel plantains,cut intoone-inchpieces,wash,and placeinabowl. Blend pepper,choppedginger, choppedonion,andchoppedgarlic.Addblended spicestothebowlwith thecut plantains.Coat plantainswellwith themixedspices.Deep-frypiecesof spicy plaintaininhotoiluntilgoldenbrown.

ServeKeleWeleafterthemaincourse asadessert.

Servings:4

—

_Recipeby Veronica Abu,acommunityscholarand

culturalactivist,whoenjoyssharingtraditionsand culturefrom herhomeland,Ghana.

Smithsonian Festival of American Folklife 53