I was very fortunate to have Professor Phillip Tobias as my professor of anatomy and dean of the medical school at the University of the Witwatersrand. Professors Pierre Bill and John Cosnett of the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Durban for their patient and expert teaching in clinical neurology, guiding my early career development.
The Durban Stroke Data Bank
The USF-TGH Stroke Registry
The USF-Cognitive Stroke Registry
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This has been well described by David Lewis-Williams in his interpretation of cave rock paintings in which certain artistic depictions reflect different stages of hallucination in the human mind. In his elegant overview of how ancient art helps understand the neuroscience of our mind, presented in his book The Mind in the Cave, he describes how the intensified trajectory of altered level of consciousness of visual hallucinations (full-blown hallucinations) was recognized in ancestral humans as identical to migraine fortification spectra (dashed lines), familiar to contemporary neurology [1].
Introduction
He described how field-dependent behavioral syndromes often arise after disturbances of the mirror neuron network in the brain [11,12]. Another important contribution of Mesulam was the introduction of the concept of an FNS instead of frontal lobe syndrome.
The nodes of the human connectome are generally involved in the anatomy of brain disorders. With Red Earth and the catalysis of the great oxygen event came multicellular life forms and further mineral evolution.
From Cellular Complexity to Neural Network Complexity
Originally, cosmochemistry provided the first stellar elements hydrogen and helium, from which the building blocks of the increasingly heavier elements of the periodic table were formed. Then planetary and terrestrial evolution (origin 4.6 BC) in terms of petrochemistry (rock chemistry) developed through the stages of Black Hades Earth (meteorite, volcanism, lava flows), Blue Earth (formation of oceans) and Gray Earth with the formation granite and continental rise.
1 The Evolution of Larger Brains
Tracking brain size from fish to amphibians, reptiles, mammals and finally primates reveals which areas have increased and why. Petrochemistry, or rock formation, has yielded six major elements that comprise about 98 percent of Earth: silicon, oxygen, magnesium, calcium, aluminum, and iron.
The building blocks of all cells, the communication between them, and neural circuitry at the micro, meso, and macro scales are central to the study of cognition. With photosynthesis producing atmospheric oxygen, the next steps in evolution continued, with the building of larger bodies, nervous tissue and brains thanks to the formation of collagen, which is a more energy-expensive tissue, which was only possible with higher oxygenation. levels [4].
The Evolution of Multicellular Systems
Before the Great Oxygen Event (GOE) at 2.4-2.1 bya, the atmosphere contained about 0.001 percent of the oxygen levels present today (21 percent in the air). The archetypal vertebrate, the amphioxus, with a notochord and dorsal nerve cord, with a swelling at one end, is a living representative of the first brain.
The Reign of the Dinosaur
Perhaps the fish arms race or the catastrophic Hangenberg event near the end of the Devonian period (358 billion years), accompanied by a rapid fall in sea level and the anoxic period attributed to the glaciation of the Southern Hemisphere, prompted the landward movement from the vertebrae [13]. Overall, the combined events led to the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, as well as 75 percent of animal and plant life.
Mammalian Evolution
Evolutionary Explanations of Blindsight
Summary
The role of the central nucleus of the amygdala in mediating fear and anxiety in the primate. Comparison of the effects of superior colliculus and pulvinar lesions on visual search and tachistoscopic pattern discrimination in monkeys.
Primate Evolution on the Early Continents in Geological Time
2 The Profound Increase in Primate Gray Matter Growth
During this time, global cooling accelerated with the formation of the Antarctic ice sheet. Diurnality and development of the fovea already occurred in haplorrhines (55 million years) after their separation from strepsirrhines.
Archeological Insights: The Missing Link and the Late Miocene Fossil Silence
During the Late Miocene, Eurasia cooled with accompanying food shortages and Eurasian apes declined and became extinct by 9 mya, and Rudapithecus, Quranopithecus and Dryopithecus spread south into tropical Africa as the ancestors of the African apes and humans. The two million year hiatus prompted David Begun to comment that "One thing the Miocene ape record does not clearly reveal is the reason for the origin of bipedalism, one of the first things to appear in human evolution" [25].
Obliteration of the Tethys Ocean and the Origins of Bipedalism
In summary, a number of features have been proposed in support of the aqua-arboreal bipedalism hypothesis by the proponents, with varying degrees of substantiation (Table 2.1). The Afar land bridge that allowed animals to cross between Africa and Arabia and the Danakil horst (540 km × 75 km wide) are both important aspects of the theory.
Supportive Data
Both fructose and uric acid promote the foraging response, while vitamin C counteracts this activity response. Fructose intake (corn syrup, refined sugars) has a close relationship with the metabolic syndrome obesity epidemic [70,71] and leads to elevated blood pressure, fatty liver and triglycerides in humans [72,73] as well as an increase in serum uric acid.
The Wetland Durophage League
The Pinniped Brain and Human Brain Evolution
Evolution and functional morphology of frontal sinuses in Bovidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla), and implications for the evolution of cranial pneumaticity. The hallmark of the human brain, frontal function and dysfunction is human connectivity.
Frontal Lobe White Matter Tracts and Connectivity
Even deeper than brain size and gray matter increase is the remarkable increase in white matter fiber proliferation in the human lineage. A most remarkable and defining feature of the human brain compared to the primate brain is the dramatic escalation in the neuropil (interwoven dendrites, axons, glial cells) and consequently connectivity in and at the microscopic level in association with granular cortical regions [2, 3 ].
3 Exponential White Matter Growth and Major Fiber Tract
In particular, the connectivity of the prefrontal cortex with other brain regions can be seen as the main driver of the human mind and cognition [1]. From primate and human studies, it can be inferred that frontal white matter is the main component contributing to increased brain size, with the observed 4:3 hyperscaling of frontal lobe white to gray matter compared to non-frontal lobe.
The Brain as a Connectome Macroscopic Hardwired Tracts
The progression indices of forebrain white matter compared to the visual area for basal insectivores (Tenrecinae, Madagascar hedgehogs), prosimians, apes, and humans are shown in Figure 3.1 [2,5]. During the evolution of the frontal lobe, there was a gradual refinement of the main motor pathway for precision movement, the pyramidal tract.
Neurophysiological Frontal Functional Systems
The storage of information for further processing, or working memory, differs from the process of active retrieval of memory traces, a function of the mid-ventrolateral PFC (VLPFC) [24,25]. This may have played a role in the involvement of the frontocerebellar circuit, with the subsequent use of tools and the elaboration of vocal articulation (Figure 3.9).
Brain Network Organization
In addition to AD, there are altered connections between brain cells in the DMN of patients with depression and schizophrenia [ 38 ]. Consciousness is such a cognitive process and emerges or is immanent in the brain's network complexity.
Comparative Neuroanatomy: Are Animal Brains Bigger and More Complex than Ours?
For example, preservation of hand movement representation in the sensorimotor regions of the brain persists in amputees [54]. Dissociable roles of the posterior parietal and prefrontal cortex in the manipulation and monitoring process.
The Connectome Unraveled
These "social cells" are part of the frontopolar cortex and insula and are considered the pinnacle of human cognition. In particular, unconscious activity uses most of the energy and is the dominant activity of the brain.
Brain Processing Dimensions in 3D Space and Time Astroglial Networks or Gliotransmission
However, this precipitates a much more dramatic expansion of neuropil and brain connectivity, proliferation of glial cells, and an escalation of cortical granular layer and synaptic complexity that provides higher "bandwidth." Current vital statistics of the brain's hardware include ~100 billion neurons, about 6-10 times as many glial cells (about one trillion), and 700 km of blood vessels. HPoA are located in the deeper part of the cortex, with processes that contain many varicose veins.
Cerebral Networks, Cellular Evolution and Cortical Expansion
This increase in the human neuropil is interpreted as related to the increased connectivity to other cortical regions of the tertiary association [34]. Mimicry behavior is a hallmark of primates and is involved in the cultural evolution of hominoids.
Brief Genetic Insights into Human Evolution
This is nowadays generally regarded as the process that links nature and nurture in the evolution of biological systems. In the latter, cell architecture rather than gene activity mediates the effect – prion proteins are an example.
The Importance of Information Acquisition and its Method
In humans, the frontal lobes occupy ∼37–39 percent of the cerebral cortical area and are reciprocally connected to all other brain regions [3,4] . Microscopically, the proliferation of the granular cortex is defined by the appearance of the characteristic layer four of the cerebral cortex association areas of the prefrontal, temporal and parietal cortex and is considered a defining characteristic of Homo sapiens.
5 The Core Frontal Systems
This probably explains part of the phenomenon of frontal syndromes with fractionated frontal subsyndromes. This occurred as the inner granular layer (layer four) of the cerebral cortex developed in a rough progression from caudal to rostral (back to front).
Ventral and Dorsal Premotor Cortices
In addition to Baddeley's working memory [22], Dehaene's global workspace and Duncan's multiple demand theories have been proposed [23]. Working memory can be considered a "missing link" in early modern humans, triggering the cultural evolution of creativity, language and visual arts development.
Frontopolar Cortex
The cognitive processes of intrapersonal cognitive control are thought to have come second and emerged as a development of the selection of a metacognition system for interpersonal coordinated action. Lesion studies have revealed that the superior portion of the SMA (BA 6 of the frontal lobes) is asso.
Language Evolution, Praxis, and Stone- Knapping Biface Technology
These can also be considered part of the mirror neuron system and its defects. It has been suggested that a possible gene duplication of the SMG may have contributed to the formation of the angular gyrus (AG), which is part of the inferior parietal lobe (IPL).
Social and Emotional Circuitry Revealed by Disruption of the Uncinate Fasciculus
Syndromes
This can take the form of hypofunction (decreased function) or hyperfunction (increased function) of the network. Separable roles of dorsolateral mid-frontal cortex and anterior inferotemporal cortex in visual working memory.
The Stages of Cognitive Evolution and “Out of Africa” Expeditions
6 Enhanced Working Memory
Subsequent neurobiological developments have been hypothesized to drive improvements in the subcomponents that are part of the expansive working memory circuit. Prepared Middle Paleolithic core technologies associated with the emergence of Homo helmei, rather than Upper Paleolithic blade technologies, are considered the best markers of modern human global migration.
Evolution of Africans, Asians, Australians, and Europeans
These are also representative of the most penetrant classes of mtDNA recorded so far among modern humans [34]. This premise is supported by genetic analysis, with modern human expansion from the East African region to all other parts of the world [34,38,39].
Archeological Evidence of Increased Intra-connectivity
Other notable changes included a relatively higher density of neurons: of the roughly 100 billion neurons in the brain, 70-80 percent are in the cerebellum. They reported connections with 14 different areas of the cerebral cortex that have been implicated in promoting cortical efficiency.
The Abrupt Florescence of Modern Behavior and Capacity for Culture ∼ 50 kya
Arguably one of the most compelling artifacts ever found, the Hohlenstein–Stadel figurine, “Lion Man,” dated to 40–35 kya, may be the oldest evidence of modern executive function (Figure 6.6) [14]. In Mithen's "cathedral of intelligences" model, the change of "isolated" intelligences in the brain was natural history, tech.
7 in Neurological ConditionsNature’s Reductionism
Although general intelligence required an increase in brain size, the cost-benefit ratio seemed biologically worthwhile. At about 35 million years old, Proconsul was even more advanced in general and social intelligence.
Contemporary Brain Networking Hypotheses
The Rise of New “Neuro” Disciplines
Modern neurology is now concerned with processes that unravel the human connection, as increasingly connection-based neuroradiological imaging refines neurological diseases and enables earlier diagnoses. There are important clinical implications of the functional network disruption diagnosis demonstrated by fMRI, as distinct patterns of network disruption in the major neurodegenerative diseases can be detected much earlier.
Frontotemporal Lobe Disorders
Some, like the last of these, can stabilize and even improve for decades, in contrast to the traditional dementias such as Alzheimer's disease [33]. Even specific frontal lobe batteries such as the Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB) have no behavioral communication.
Traumatic Brain Injury and Gulf War Illness
In an important study by Zuckerman et al., exposure to the experimental effects of blast waves in rodents induced significant spasms. Neuroscientific progress with GWI first documented the elevation of acute-phase lipids, including phospholipids, which was reported by Hokama et al.
Clinical Neurological Lesions as Clues to the Connectome
New insights from cerebral neuroimaging research have shown that the brain is composed of multiple interdigital large-scale networks – numbered at 17 based on our current ability to analyze them. This explains why not only lesions can cause symptoms, but also areas in the brain that are distant from the lesion.
8 Neurological Diseases as Networktopathies with
These provide both an understanding of the nature of the deficit as well as treatment options, particularly the neuroplastic potential. The main advantages of the electrophysiological modalities such as MEG and EEG are their much higher temporal resolution but lower spatial resolution.
Mapping Brain Connectivity with Newer Neuroradiological Tools
The matrisome of the cerebral blood vessels includes the basement membrane, a critical interface structure between the brain and the microvasculature. Abnormalities of this part of the matrisome are now considered a major cause of SVD, both acquired and familial.
The Rise of Network Medicine
Role of microorganisms in the evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome theory of evolution. These molecular processes are based on pyramidal cell activity and their networks that can occur in the absence of external stimuli.
The Human Connectome: Macroscopic Hardwired Tracts and Neurochemical Tracts
These prefrontal cortical functions are particularly prone to physiological processes such as arousal, fatigue or stress, as well as external or environmental influences. However, these brain areas are particularly plastic and network connections can be rapidly strengthened or inhibited, thus offering great flexibility in the behavioral repertoire.
9 of the Prefrontal Cortex to Changes in Daily Rhythms
However, due to what has been termed "spatial tuning," the pyramidal cell neuron fires with a preference in one direction as opposed to another direction (for example, 90-degree versus 270-degree orientation). In the setting of cognitive impairment attributed to stress, it can be ameliorated by issuing α1 receptor antagonists.
The Idiosyncratic PFC Network Vulnerabilities and the Concept of Dynamic Network Connectivity
Dopamine's effects on working memory occur through the D1 receptor group (D1 and D5), also in an inverted U-shaped effect with overstimulation or blocking of the D1 receptor family, leading to impaired working memory performance [34,35]. Enhancement of PFC network activity by improving working memory performance can be enhanced by α2A-adrenergic receptor stimulation, which inhibits c-AMP production [46].
The Benefits Mechanistic of Insights into Microcircuitry for Treating PTSD
Actions of norepinephrine in cerebral cortex and thalamus: implications for central noradrenergic system function. The daily formation and disassembly of neuronal assemblies is a normal part of brain activity.
10 and Management
These correspond to only part of the brain's networks and are inherently limited and non-specific, with limited benefits for those affected. More robust and durable therapies involve manipulating the brain's inherent capacity for neuroplasticity.
Heliotherapy
Sleep Hygiene
The molecular processes involved, as already noted, are the synaptic pruning and plasticity displayed during sleep and dreaming for optimization of the brain's future responses [20,21]. Avoid prolonging work schedule through correspondence such as emails (may increase cortisol release).
Physical Exercise
PE can be monitored by more advanced measurements such as VO2 max (the maximum rate of oxygen consumption during intense exercise, where V = volume, O2 = oxygen, max = maximum), measured in milliliters of O2 per minute per. VO2 max estimation by the Uth–Sorensen–Overgaard–Pedersen test: VO2 max = 15 × HR max/HR rest;.
Brain Foods
Fish should preferably be of wild origin, and shellfish should be assessed for potential heavy metals such as mercury and arsenic. Dairy products should be full-fat and not reduced or fat-free; healthy saturated fat contains vitamins A and D.
Cognitive Exercises
Music can be considered a kind of nutrient for the nervous system – the neurostimulation that resets the nervous system. Pioneering French physician Alfred Tomatis, known for the sound stimulation program called the Tomatis Method, referred to the importance of sound and music by saying, "The ear is a battery for the brain." Music can be uplifting by stimulating the dopaminergic reward system, and hypothetically, music resynchronizes the brain from entrainment.
Socialization
Together, these have turned humans into super-collaborators, prompting Nowak to research future possibilities, such as curbing overexploitation of our current environmental resources. Many social media platforms exist, such as Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat, and Facebook, and these are manifestations of extended human sociality.
Summary of Lifestyle Interventions
Medical Treatment Neurostimulation Devices
Effects of the tree-to-ground sleep transition on the evolution of cognition in early Homo. The water optimization hypothesis and the human occupation of the mid-latitude belt in the Pleistocene.
