Comparative Neuroanatomy: Are Animal Brains
65 Comparative Neuroanatomy
Language
Bottlenose dolphins have semantic capability, as evidenced by their ability to compre- hend symbolism or an artificial language via their own auditory and visual symbols.
A basic syntax capability has also been described, whereby changing the order of sym- bolic “words” changes the message. Learning and decoding of information has also been described as being achieved through inference as opposed to direct instruction.
Memory-Related Functions
In addition to their understanding of symbolic representations related to items or events, termed declarative knowledge, BN dolphins also appear to demonstrate basic mechanical understanding of objects. This translates into their ability to manipulate objects and is consistent with procedural knowledge and memory.
Tool Use
Closely related are the reports of tool use by BN dolphins, demonstrated by their ability to manipulate sponges to explore crevices that may harbor prey. These abilities have also been transmitted to their conspecifics, an example of cultural transference.
Social Complexity
Perhaps most impressive is the social culture and learning in terms of foraging and learn- ing dialects among cetaceans. In addition, both group alliances and alliances of alliances have been described. Most cetaceans studied (BN dolphins, orcas, sperm whales, hump- back whales) display multiculturalism, referring to different cultural groups abiding within the same habitats. The cultural learning of these varied behaviors has been docu- mented both through imitation or motor mimicry, and more impressively through direct
Figure 3.11 Imitation behavior is a critical ability for social learning. Dolphin imitation behavior, improvising the tail for the human leg.
Source: Marino L, Connor RC, Fordyce RE, et al. Cetaceans have complex brains for complex cognition. PLoS Biol 2007;5(5):e139.
instruction or pedagogy. The example cited by Marino et al. is that of orca calves being
“instructed” by their mothers in beaching maneuvers to facilitate capturing seals [48].
Equally remarkable is the unique discovery of BN dolphins’ individual identity, each hav- ing their own signature whistle [49]. Another feature that relates to cerebral complexity and enhanced working memory is the cerebellum, which is relatively larger in cetaceans compared to primates or humans [50]. Unprecedented is the lack of violence among ceta- ceans, including against humans, their tolerance for other cultures (multiculturalism) in their environment, and high demand for sociality. The latter even extends to taking on human companions in the absence of their own. This was well depicted in Neiwert’s book describing the story of Luna, the orca residing in Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island, who replaced his pod family with humans [51].
Summary
Understanding the cerebral network evolution from which we inherited many distributed complex networks is becoming increasingly important from a clinical diagnostic and treatment point of view today. Assessing network integrity can be performed in both the spatial and temporal domains. Spatial- based imaging by fMRI can provide up to a 2–3 mm resolution, magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) are able to distinguish at a 5–30 mm resolution and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) at a 3–6 mm resolution. In the temporal domains, fMRI allows resolutions within seconds and elec- trophysiological measurements within milliseconds. Similar to the “omics” networks at a cellular level (genomics, proteomics, lipidomics), at the mesoscale and macroscale level imaging the cerebral connectome has helped earlier diagnosis of most of our most com- mon neurological and psychiatric conditions encountered today. These have yielded new diagnostic tools where none were available before, such as diagnosis of depression by MRI- based intrinsic connectivity analysis (ICN) or resting- state networks (RSN).
Improved accuracy in diagnosis in TBI has been realized by DTI as well as RSN. In epi- lepsy, the network- based approach termed epileptomics has improved our understanding of seizure diagnosis and propagation and influenced treatment approaches. Functional MRI resting- state network and DTI have contributed profoundly to our connectomal understanding of diseases. With focal epilepsy, this has prompted our view of it being more of a system- level condition, with implications for epilepsy surgery decision- making [52,53]. Furthermore, the human connectome and its interaction with other complex systems and how they interact with other parts of the body, such as metabolomics and the human microbiome, are becoming increasingly relevant in understanding disease and therapies. Understanding the cause of phantom limb pain and the observation that the cerebral networks of the amputated limb remain preserved in the brain has empowered us with therapies for these conditions. Preservation of hand movement representation in the sensorimotor areas of the brain persists in amputees, for example [54].
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The development of the fourth cortical layer, also called the granular cortex, of the six- layer mammalian cortex enabled profound increases in connectivity. Pyramidal cells became the principal cells of the mammalian and primate cortex. Supercells developed, called spindle cells (or von Economo cells) as well as fork cells in the frontal lobe polar cortex, unique among social animals, including humans. These “social cells” are part of the frontopolar cortex and the insula, and are regarded as the apex of human cognition.
Synaptic complexity increased and the supporting cells, astrocytes, became intricately involved in listening and modulating neurons, forming astroglial networks.