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Primate tree living honed sensorimotor locomotor abilities and the expansive frontopari- etal networks. Based on these large- scale networks, the major cognitive abilities such as working memory capability and the mirror neuron system were forged over time. Other critical networks developed during primate and human frontal lobe development, such as the inhibitory systems that brake the mirror neuron copying systems. The mirror neuron system enabled a theory of mind capability important in social interactions from which mentalizing and empathy evolved. By about 500 kya, the frontal lobes had reached the modern size, as exemplified by southern African Homo heidelbergensis, Saldahna man and Kabwe man.
Overall frontal lobe size increases in mammalian species from rodents upwards, increas
ing further in size in species such as cats and dogs and becoming largest among primates and hominoids. The increase, however, is in an allometric (the study of body size increase and shape or biological scaling) manner [1]. Although the overall frontal lobe size is not proportionally greater in humans when compared to the great apes, the region termed the prefrontal cortex is relatively larger compared to other primates.
However, the frontopolar cortex (BA 10) is proportionally larger and the BA 13 is proportionally smaller in humans compared to apes [2]. In humans, the frontal lobes occupy ~37–39 percent of the cerebral cortical area and are connected reciprocally to all other brain regions [3,4]. Other important differences in human brains with respect to other mammals include hemispheric asymmetry and what has been termed cerebral torque, wherein the right frontal and left occipital are enlarged (petalias). In addition, connectivity reorganization, neuropil reorganization, and progressive sophistication of neurotransmitters and receptors continued in our lineage [5]. Granular prefrontal cor
tical areas appeared among early primates ~65 mya. Microscopically, the proliferation of the granular cortex is defined by the appearance of the distinctive layer four of the cerebral cortex association areas of the prefrontal, temporal and parietal cortices and is regarded as a defining characteristic of Homo sapiens. Specifically, the prefrontal granular cortex expanded within humans and is key for executive function abilities. The granular layer four receives largely afferents from the thalamus and is the place where extensive intracortical connectivity occurs. Furthermore, human prefrontal cortex (PFC) pyram
idal cells have additional branching and greater spine density in comparison to tem poral, occipital, and parietal cortices. The PFC layer three has been documented to have as many as 61 spines per 10 μm. In comparison to the homologous macaque cortical region,