Volume 11, Number 1 (October 2023):5085-5094, doi:10.15243/jdmlm.2023.111.5085 ISSN: 2339-076X (p); 2502-2458 (e), www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id
Open Access 5085 Research Article
The use of basalt scoria as a geopolymer cement to increase soil bearing capacity
Saparudin1, Sofia W Alisjahbana1, Rajiman2, Ilyas Sadad2, Muhammad Amin3*, Yusup Hendronursito3
1 Doctoral Program in Civil Engineering, Universitas Tarumanegara, Jl. Letjen S. Parman No. 1 Tomang, Grogol, Jakarta, Indonesia
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Universitas Bandar Lampung, Jl. Zainal Abidin Pagar Alam No. 26, Labuhan Ratu, Kedaton, Bandar Lampung, Indonesia
3 Mining Technology Research Center - BRIN, Jl. Ir. Sutami Km 15 Tanjung Bintang, South Lampung, Indonesia
*corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract Article history:
Received 11 May 2023 Revised 13 July 2023 Accepted 7 August 2023
One method that can be used to improve soil properties is the addition of geopolymer cement to the soil to become more stable. This study aimed to determine the effect of geopolymer cement on soil stability. The raw materials for geopolymer cement include clay and basalt rock, with variations in the composition of 0%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%. The levels of temperature variance used were 40 oC, 60 oC, and 80 oC, with variations in 4 and 6 hours. Characterization includes X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) tests of raw materials and products. The highest compressive strength was obtained on a mixture of 40% basalt, 200 mesh, and a heating temperature of 80 °C for 6 hours, 56.32 MPa. The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test showed a significant increase in the heat treatment geopolymer products. The CBR value on Y1 during the 10x collision was 16.67%; in the 30x crash, it increased to 63.33%, while in the 65x collision, it increased to 78.33%. Whereas in the Y2 measurement, at 10x collisions, it was 21.11%; at 30x collisions, the CBR value increased to 82.22%; and at 65x collisions, the CBR value increased to 100.00%.
Keywords:
basalt
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) compressive strength
geopolymer soil stability
To cite this article: Saparudin, Alisjahbana, S.W., Rajiman, Sadad, I., Amin, M. and Hendronursito, Y. 2023. The use of basalt scoria as a geopolymer cement to increase soil bearing capacity. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 11(1):5085-5094, doi:10.15243/jdmlm.2023.111.5085.
Introduction
Mining is an essential branch of the economy, providing the necessary raw materials for nations' economic development and civilization. However, mining exploitation is associated with powerful disturbances in the natural environment and human life. Ecological systems in all climate zones frequently collapse entirely or partially due to mining activities that exploit mineral resources (Rahmonov et al., 2022).
The most apparent effects of mining are changes in the topography brought about by topsoil removal, vegetation clearing, and the dumping of massive
volumes of heaped soil waste into the regions surrounding the mine area. As a result of the absence of land disposal management, it will have an impact on the environment. The soil will become unstable, resulting in landfills that will become landslides that cannot be traversed by roads and will damage soil construction (Festin et al., 2019).
Instability phenomena such as incorrect dimensions or mismatch with the slope element geometry, too much slope resulting from a misconfigured geometry, or accumulation of excess material exceeding the carrying capacity of the soil will cause problems with the stability of the soil around
Open Access 5086 the mine (Roy et al., 2016). Mining risk factors for
good mining include the potential for landslides caused by increased slope, reduced aggregate stability, making the soil more susceptible to leakage, and continuous erosion (Petrean et al., 2023).
Managing the mining region is necessary to mitigate post-mining effects, such as changes in soil composition that make it more prone to landslides. The best solution can be found by utilizing excavated earth during the reclamation of abandoned mines. One way is to regulate the disposal of surface-stripped soil and change the soil construction to become more compact and stable by adding minerals that can increase soil strength. The post-mining land that has changed its construction can be traversed by vehicles and become housing and warehouse land (Wua et al., 2022).
Management factors related to the soil treatments applied during mining and the diversity and composition of the resulting soil (König et al., 2023).
The addition of binding materials can change the structure of labile post-mining soil. The advantage of stabilization technology is that it is an easy and cost- effective conventional technology (Zhang and Li, 2016). Binders that are often used are MgO and industrial waste such as fly ash and slag, minerals such as zeolite, palygorskite, kaolinite, bentonite, apatite, activated carbon, biochar, compost, and agricultural waste such as manure and straw (Shen et al., 2018).
OPC lime and cement (Firoozi et al., 2017), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) (Abdila et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2023), and lateritic soil (Amulya and Shankar, 2020).
There are three ways to stabilize unstable soils:
mechanical soil stabilization techniques, compaction soil stabilization techniques, and chemical soil stabilization techniques (Kalkan, 2020). In this study, post-mining heap soil stabilization will be carried out using chemical methods, namely by adding geopolymer cement using materials from mineral basalt mines. Geopolymer cement can later be used as a stabilizer for unstable soils around mining sites and as a post-mining embankment.
Dissolution of alumina-silica by alkali will produce Si(OH)4 and Al(OH)4 monomers, which will then be polycondensed into alkaline aluminosilicate polymers with a 3-dimensional cross-link structure.
Besides the advantages of geopolymer cement having fast-growing physical properties, strong compression can be achieved early after the cement is added (Davidovits, 1994). In addition, clay is a mixture of sand and dust particles, with parts of clay that have different characteristics. Clay soil is included in fine- grained soil, whose total weight passes through the No.
200 sieve, an element dominated by SiO2 and Al2O3
(Kasjuaji, 2018).
Based on research results, geopolymer cement has several advantages. Namely, it does not require significant energy consumption as conventional cement, does not emit CO2 into the air so that it can reduce the effect of global warming, and has a sound
volume because the shrinkage that occurs is 4-5 times lower than conventional concrete (Zongjin et al., 2004).
Basalt rock is one of the materials that can be used as a soil stabilizer. Pilehvar et al. (2020) stated that the study's results explained that basalt rock could increase the compressive strength of geopolymer cement. This study researched stabilizing clay soils using geopolymer cement and produced increased compressive strength after the soil was mixed with geopolymer cement (Pilehvar et al., 2020). Amin (2019) researched the manufacture of geopolymer cement using materials from basalt rock based on the research results. The results explained that the greater the percent addition of NaOH in the manufacture of geopolymer cement, the lower the absorption value and porosity value, and vice versa, the higher the specific gravity and the compressive strength value. It was increased in geopolymer cement (Amin, 2019).
Materials and Methods
The primary raw materials for forming the structure of the geopolymer network selected in this study include clay, basalt, sodium silicate, sodium hydroxide, superplasticizer, and water. The clay used came from Rejosari Village, Natar District, South Lampung.
Basalt came from Mataram Baru Village, Labuhan Maringgai District, East Lampung, sodium silicate, and technical sodium hydroxide.
It was grinding the raw materials of soil and basalt in a ball mill machine for 8 hours, grinding each material separately without mixing. Then, the raw materials for soil and basalt that have been refined are filtered using 80 mesh and 200 mesh chickens to obtain 10 kg of material each. To characterize X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) raw materials, 10 g of refining was carried out again and filtered using a sieve until a grain size of 250 mesh was obtained.
The clay and basalt raw materials were characterized using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques and a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) in the Mining Technology Research Center - BRIN laboratory. Furthermore, the soil and basalt raw materials obtained for each 10 kg were weighed according to the composition in Table 1.
A 12 M NaOH solution was prepared by weighing 480 grams of NaOH dissolved in 1,000 mL of distilled water. Sodium silicate weighing was also carried out according to the needs of the composition. Then 100 mL of NaOH solution was added to 250 g of sodium silicate. Moreover, stirring was done until a dilute NaOH and sodium silicate solution were obtained.
Next, 1 kg of raw materials consisting of a mixture of 90% (900 g) of soil and 10% (100 g) of basalt was weighed and added with a mixed solution of NaOH and sodium silicate to the raw materials of soil and basalt in a container. The mixture was then put in the container on the machine stirrer and stirred until a
Open Access 5087 smooth geopolymer dough was obtained after 30
minutes. The delicate dough was molded into a cylindrical tube measuring 1.25 inches in diameter and 2.50 inches in height. The geopolymer samples that had been printed were cooled at room temperature for 24 hours. Then the samples were removed from the cylindrical mold, cooled at room temperature for 4 hours, and dried in an oven at various temperatures of 40, 60, and 80 oC for 4 and 6 hours, respectively. The geopolymer products underwent physical tests, which were carried out in the form of compressive strength testing using the Universal Testing Machine (UTM) and characterization using X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron energy-dispersive microscopy (SEM-EDS) techniques.
Table 1. The variant of samples.
Particle Size
Variant Details Temperature
80 mesh
0% basalt + 100% Soil
40 oC 10% basalt + 90% Soil
20% basalt + 80% Soil
60 oC 30% basalt + 70% Soil
40% basalt + 60% Soil
80 oC 50% basalt + 50% Soil
200 mesh
0% basalt + 100% Soil
40 oC 10% basalt + 90% Soil)
20% basalt + 80% Soil
60 oC 30% basalt + 70% Soil
40% basalt + 60% Soil
80 oC 50% basalt + 50% Soil
*total 36 samples
The CBR test on the soil was carried out to determine the carrying capacity of the road subgrade. CBR is used as the basis for planning embankment pavements.
Results and Discussion Compressive strength
The results of compressive strength measurements on samples with a grain fineness of 80 mesh, without the addition of basalt (standard), and with the addition of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% basalt, with a heating temperature of 40, 60, and 80 oC, are presented in Figure 1. The results of compressive strength measurements on a 200 mesh basalt grain fineness sample, without the addition of basalt (standard), and the addition of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%, heating temperatures of 40, 60 and 80 oC are presented in Figure 2. The addition of superplasticizers affects water use and the geopolymer's workability. Water will affect the compressive strength due to the presence of water. The geopolymer will compact itself and increase the workability of the geopolymer (Memon et al., 2012). Geopolymer, adding 0-40%
basalt with a grain size of 80 mesh at 40 oC heating for 4 hours, obtained a maximum compressive strength of
9 MPa. However, it decreased with the addition of 50%
basalt to 7.81 MPa.
(a) heating temperature 40 oC, the grain size of basalt 80 mesh
(b) heating temperature 60 oC, basal grain size 80 mesh
(c) heating temperature 80 oC, basal grain size 80 mesh Figure 1. Graphical results of the compressive strength test of geopolymer samples without the addition of basalt (standard) and with the addition of basalt with variations in the acquisition of 10%, 20%,
30%, 40%, and 50%.
Prolonged heating, which takes 6 hours, produces a greater compressive strength than heating for 4 hours.
Heating for 6 hours resulted in an increase in compressive strength to 22.64 MPa. The same trend occurs when adding 50% basalt. The compressive strength decreased by 10.9%. The compressive
0 5 10 15
0 10 20 30 40 50
Compressive Strength (Mpa)
Concentration of Basalt (wt%)
4hrs 6hrs
0 5 10 15 20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Compressive Strength (Mpa)
Concentration of Basalt (wt%)
4hrs 6hrs
0 5 10 15 20 25
0 10 20 30 40 50
Compressive Strength (Mpa)
Concentration of Basalt (wt%)
4hrs 6hrs
Open Access 5088 strength drop aligns with the research of Bachtiar
(2020). The more prolonged heating will produce a higher compressive strength (Bachtiar, 2020). Adding more basalt affects the compressive strength because it can have a better compactness effect.
(a) heating temperature 40 oC, the grain size of basalt 200 mesh
(b) heating temperature 60 oC, basal grain size 200 mesh
(c) heating temperature 80 oC, basal grain size 200 mesh Figure 2. Graphical results of the compressive strength test of geopolymer samples without the addition of basalt (standard), and with the addition of
basalt 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%.
Adding basalt to other materials provides a more substantial bonding effect (Amin et al., 2021). The basalt powder's size and weight concentration can affect the geopolymer's compressive strength (Amin et al., 2020). The chemical content of SiO2 and Al2O3 in
the basalt bonds them together. Likewise, in clay, polymerization occurs when activated by NaOH (Kumar et al., 2019). Using sodium silicate can accelerate the polymerization reaction and increase the mechanical strength of the geopolymer (Risdanareni et al., 2015). Likewise, the heating temperature greatly affects the strength of the geopolymer. The higher the heating temperature, the higher the compressive strength (Manesh et al., 2012).
Geopolymer CBR (California Bearing Ratio) results The geopolymer CBR test was carried out on samples without addition and with the addition of grain sizes 80 and 200 mesh, oven, and without oven. CBR test results can be seen in Figure 3. Data on CBR test results for geopolymers without heat treatment and with heat treatment can be seen in Figure 5. There are differences in the results of CBR geopolymers between heat-treated and non-heat-treated geopolymers. The CBR value decreased in geopolymers without heat treatment. This decrease in value is due to the water content in the sample without heat treatment, making it unstable. When pounded during the CBR test, the CBR value is small, and consequently, the CBR value on soil without oven treatment is unstable (Yashaset al., 2016). CBR test results on geopolymer with heat treatment: The CBR value increases. The increase in the CBR value is due to the reduced water content.
The voids filled with water are gone, and the effect is that the soil becomes compact and stable when pounded. Likewise, the silica content in the soil also greatly affects the CBR value. The dry condition of the soil makes the silica content easier to react to than without heat treatment (Attah et al., 2021). Soil conditions influence soil CBR values. The better the dry soil conditions, the higher the CBR value. This CBR value is used in planning for soil hardening. This CBR value can be increased or decreased by compaction. However, in practice, it will refer to the values listed for optimum water content and maximum dry unit weight (Aderinola and Quadri, 2017).
Based on the graphic image, it can be seen that the geopolymer, with a basalt grain size of 200 mesh, is more stable when the mashing is carried out. When 10, 30, and 65 x collisions were carried out, the settlement was more stable and different when compared to the geopolymer addition of a basal grain size of 80 mesh; the decrease showed a wide range.
The CBR value limit for subgrade is at least 6%, so the pavement layer is not prone to cracking and collapsing due to road subsidence (Soedarsono, 1993). Soils with a CBR value of <3% are classified as low CBR soils, 3-7% as low to medium CBR soils, 7-20% as medium CBR soils, and >20% as good CBR soils (Bowles, 1992).
Geopolymers without heat treatment are in the low and medium classifications, with very little suitable CBR. Clay soils are affected by fluctuations in water content, resulting in significant volume changes.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0 20 40
Compressive Strength (Mpa)
Concentration of Basalt (wt%)
4hrs 6hrs
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0 20 40
Compressive Strength (Mpa)
Concentration of Basalt (wt%) 4hrs 6hrs
05 1015 2025 3035 4045 5055 60
0 20 40
Compressive Strength (Mpa)
Concentration of Basalt (wt%) 4hrs 6hrs
Open Access 5089 (a). The addition of basalt size 80 mesh without heat
treatment.
(b). The addition of basalt size 80 mesh with heat treatment.
(c). The addition of basalt size 200 mesh without heat treatment.
(d). The addition of basalt size 200 mesh with heat treatment.
Figure 3. Geopolymer CBR test results.
Open Access 5090 If the water content approaches the optimum moisture
content of standard compaction, significant changes in strength and stiffness occur (Hardiyatmo, 2015;
Waruwu et al., 2021).
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) characterization of raw materials
The results of the characterization of the oxide content of clay and basalt can be seen in Table 2. The results of this soil XRF are the same as those from Nigeria (Olaseinde et al., 2020). It is revealed that SiO2, Fe2O3, and Al2O3 are the main constituents in the soil. The main chemical content affected more tight bonds (Vodyanitskii, 2018). SiO2 and Al2O3 dominate basalt.
Table 2. The chemical composition of clay and basalt.
Oxide elements
Clay soil (wt%)
Basalt (wt%)
SiO2 45.628 39.259
Al2O3 18.720 11.799
Fe2O3 29.442 22.694
CaO 1.917 20.248
MgO - 1.746
K2O 0.977 0.968
TiO2 2.009 2.116
P2O5 0.591 -
MnO 0.129 0.515
ZrO2 0.131 0.024
The chemical content of basalt has a hard impact on these rocks when added to other materials. When basalt is added to the soil, it will significantly decrease the water content and increase the soil's density so that it becomes more stable (Ramachandranet al., 2019).
CaO is present in basalt in calcite, which is always present, and oxides are included in the basalt (Saraya and El-Fadaly, 2017).
X- ray diffraction (XRD) characterization of raw materials
The results of the X-ray diffraction (XRD) characterization of clay and basalt can be seen in Figure 4. The figure shows the results of the XRD
analysis of soil and basalt. The dominant clay crystal phase is quartz or silicon oxide (SiO2), which has the highest peak. Other crystalline phases are also formed, such as calcite (CaCO3), corundum (Al2O3), and Gehlenite (Ca2Al2SiO7). This crystal phase is a phase that is often formed in clay (Amalero et al., 2003). The results of the identification of XRD on basalt showed that three phases were formed, namely silicon oxide (SiO2) in the form of quartz, anorthite (CaSi2Al2O12), and ferrosilite (Fe3CaSi4O12). The crystal phase formed is similar to other basal characterizations (Suharto et al., 2021).
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) characterization
The topography of soil and basalt can be seen in Figure 5. The topography of the clay shows the distribution of silica oxide, or SiO2, in a spherical shape, marked by a not-sharp blue sky, with the soil being partially changed to clay minerals. The visible size of the soil is a micrometer grain, which consists of smaller particles with nanoscale structures (Sharma et al., 2016).
Hematite derived from iron oxide is spread relatively evenly but in small pieces, as is the clay structure in the form of alumina oxide in the form of corundum (Al2O3), which is inserted only slightly and followed by Ca originating from calcite deposition (Yuliyanti et al., 2012; Ivanov et al., 2019). Pozzolans are construction materials with binding characteristics that unite the worked mass particles (Bedoni et al., 2021).
In this context, pozzolan is the process of bonding particles together to form a workable mass of construction material (Mahdi, 2018; Bedoni et al., 2021). Silica, or SiO2, in the form of the silicon dioxide phase, has spread over most basal samples. The graphite structure is sharp with a pink color marked on the distribution or topography, which binds to the oxide to form silicon oxide in the form of anorthite, which binds to alumina, also seen as the spread of iron oxide in the form of ferrosilite, which is marked with an orange color (Al Smadi et al., 2018). angular shape with a little twist (Dobiszewska and Beycioğlu, 2020), forms carbonic acid and releases this Fe and Ca (Roy et al., 2016).
(a) Clay (b) Basalt
Figure 4. The crystal phase of raw materials.
Open Access 5091
(a) Clay (b) Basalt
Figure 5. The topography of raw materials.
X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) of geopolimer
The chemical composition can be seen in Table 3. The content of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 dominates the chemical composition of geopolymers without adding basalt. There are differences in the concentration of the geopolymer composition with and without addition.
Geopolymer without adding SiO2 and Al2O3 content of 62.584 and 17.243%. Geopolymer with the addition of basalt of 58.438 and 58.037%.
Table 3. Characterization results of geopolymers with basalt grain sizes of 80 and 200 mesh.
Oxide element
Basalt 0%
Basal 40%, 80 mesh, temp. 60 oC,
6 hours
Basal 40%, 200 mesh, temp. 60 oC,
6 hours
SiO2 62.584 58.438 58.037
Al2O3 17.243 12.836 12.831
Fe2O3 11.615 14.632 14.801
CaO 2.331 7.604 8.111
MgO - 0.239 0.349
K2O 2.549 2.087 1.455
TiO2 1.967 2.067 2.089
P2O5 0.961 1.190 0.904
MnO 0.204 0.264 0.303
ZrO2 0.209 0.188 0.105
The reduction of SiO2 in geopolymer is affected by adding a large amount of basalt, which is as much as 40%, along with the decrease in SiO2 and Al2O3 in geopolymer, followed by an increase in Fe2O3. The increase in Fe2O3 is because basalt contains many iron or Fe2O3 compounds. The CaO content in the geopolymer increases due to the presence of CaO in the basalt (Amin et al., 2016). The dominance of SiO2
and Al2O3 compounds in the geopolymer resulted in a perfect reaction between the soil and basalt (Handoko et al., 2020).
X- ray diffraction (XRD) characterization of geopolymer products
The results of the geopolymer XRD characterization are shown in Figure 6. The crystalline phases that form
on geopolymer as a soil stabilizer from the highest peaks are quartz (SiO2), hematite (Fe2O3), and mullite (3Al2O3.2SiO2). The crystal phase formed is the same as in previous research (Ouattara et al., 2021). There is no difference in the crystal phase formed due to the difference in the grain size of the added basalt.
Figure 6. The crystal phase of geopolymer products.
The formation of these phases comes from the raw materials used, namely basalt and clay, with constituent compounds dominated by SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3. The dominant materials are SiO2 and Al2O3. A complete polymerization reaction occurs when adding an active alkali. As long as the geopolymer reaction is perfect, it will result in a higher level of polymerization and higher mechanical strength (Suppiah et al., 2022).
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) The results of the SEM-EDS characterization of geopolymer samples using basal grain sizes of 80 and 200 mesh are shown in Figure 7. The figure shows the same microstructure, namely the conversion of SiO2
and Al2O3 into aluminosilicate gel (Suppiah, 2022).
The even distribution of the aluminosilicate gel originates from Si and Al throughout the geopolymer.
Open Access 5092 The formed material's cohesiveness increases the
geopolymer's mechanical strength. However, there are differences in the structure preparation between geopolymers using 80 and 200 mesh basalt grains.
(a) basalt size: mesh 80
(b) with basalt size 200 mesh Figure 7. SEM-EDS of geopolymer products.
The differences in these structures' composition affect the geopolymer's mechanical strength because the polymerization reaction of smaller grain sizes is perfect (Laouti, 2016). The finer the grain size, the smaller the porosity, and the higher the strength. It can be seen in Figure 7 (a) of a geopolymer with a basal grain size of 80 mesh that there are still quite many pores, so the strength of the geopolymer is smaller compared to Figure 7(b), showing very few pores that tend to be tight, resulting in higher compressive strength.
Conclusion
The results showed that basalt can be used as a raw material for making geopolymers as soil stabilizers.
There was an increase in the carrying capacity of the soil with geopolymer cement made from basalt. The results of the CBR test showed that a very significant increase occurred in the soil after the addition of
geopolymer with basalt grain sizes of 80 mesh and 200 mesh. The most significant and optimum yield compressive strength is geopolymer made from 200 mesh basalt stone, composition 40 wt%, heat treatment temperature 80 °C for 6 hours, 56.32 MPa. The geopolymer is dominated by SiO2 and Al2O3
compounds, with quartz and mullite (SiO2 and Al2O3) as dominant phases, and the morphology of silica gel is relatively evenly distributed on the geopolymer. The cost required to make geopolymer cement from basalt is more economical than casting mix. For road works with a volume of 300 m3, a fee of IDR 235,650,000 for geopolymer cement made from basalt, IDR 19,350,000, is compared to the cost of cast-mix concrete.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Tarumanegara University, Bandar Lampung University, the Mining Technology Research Center, and the National Research and Innovation Agency of Indonesia for the laboratory facilities used during the research.
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