Book Psychology An Introduction - Benjamin B. Lahey

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Psychology an IntroductIon

Ps ych o lo gy a n In tr odu c tI o n

9 780078 035166

9 0 0 0 0 ISBN 978-0-07-803516-6 MHID 0-07-803516-3

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www.mhhe.com/lahey11e

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3.1 Use critical thinking effectively.

3.2 Engage in creative thinking.

3.3 Use reasoning to recognize, develop, defend, and criticize arguments and other persuasive appeals.

3.4 Approach problems effectively.

● Ch 1: Goals of Psychology, p. 3 Thinking Critically about Psychology,

p. 4, 13, and 19

● Ch 2: Basic Concepts of Research, p. 25-7; Thinking Critically about Psychology, p. 40 and 43

● Ch 3: Thinking Critically about Psychology, p. 55, 61, 76, and 81

● Ch 4: Thinking Critically about Psychology, p. 98, 101, 104, 110, and 116

● Ch 5: Thinking Critically about Psychology, p. 124, 132, 136, 144, 147, and 157

● Ch 6: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 166, 177, 181, and 188

● Ch 8: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 243, 251, and 256

● Ch 9: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 269, 277, 282, and 298;

Thinking and Problem Solving: Using Information to Reach Goals, p. 269-76; Intelligence: The Sum Total of Cognition, p. 282-94

● Ch 10: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 310, 315, 325, 330, and 339; Adolescent Development, p. 325-9

● Ch 11: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 357, 366, 375, 385, and 389

● Ch 16: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 537, 548, 551, and 559;

Groups and Social Infl uence, p. 527-36; Attitudes and Persuasion, p. 538-46

3

CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientifi c approach to solving problems related to behavior and mental processes.

4.1 Describe major applied areas of psychology (e.g., clinical, counsel- ing, industrial/organizational, school, health).

4.2 Identify appropriate applications of psychology in solving problems.

4.3 Articulate how psychological principles can be used to explain social issues and inform public policy.

4.4 Apply psychological concepts, theories, and research fi ndings as these relate to everyday life.

4.5 Recognize that ethically complex situations can develop in the application of psychological principles.

● Ch 1: Goals of Psychology, p. 3; Contemporary Perspectives and

Specialty Areas in Psychology, p. 13-18; What We Know about Human Behavior: Some Starting Places, p. 19-21

● Ch 2: Application of Psychology, p. 44-5

● Ch 4: Application of Psychology, p. 117

● Ch 7: Theoretical Interpretations of Learning, p. 217-24; Application

of Psychology, p. 226

● Ch 9: Thinking and Problem Solving: Using Information to Reach

Goals, p. 269-276; Application of Psychology, p. 299-301

● Ch 12: Personality Assessment: Taking a Measure of the Person,

p. 419-21

● Ch 13: Coping With Stress, p. 444-447; Changing Health-Related

Behavior Problems, p. 448-51; Human Diversity: Psychology and Women’s Health, p. 451-4; Application of Psychology, p. 455-6

● Ch 14: Defi nition of Abnormal Behavior, p. 459-64; Sexual

Dysfunction and Sexual Health, p. 492-4

● Ch 15: Psychoanalysis, p. 500-504; Humanistic Psychotherapy,

p. 505-7; Cognitive Behavior Therapy, p. 508-14; Group and Family Therapy, p. 515-6; Medical Therapies, p. 518-21; Application of Psychology, p. 523-4

● Ch 17: Applied Fields of Psychology, p. 563; Psychology and

Work, p. 571-86; Psychology and Law, p. 587-91; Psychology and Education, p. 592-5

APA UNDERGRADUATE LEARNING GOALS AND OUTCOMES PSYCHOLOGY CONTENT

4

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY

Understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues.

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TM

eleventh edition

Psychology

An Introduction

Benjamin B. Lahey

University of Chicago

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or broadcast for distance learning.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN: 978-0-07-803516-6

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lahey, Benjamin B.

Psychology : an introduction / Benjamin Lahey.—11th ed.

p. cm.

Summary: “A contemporary take on a time tested classic. Students will master the central concepts of psychology with the new 11th edition of Psychology from Benjamin Lahey. The 11th edition has been thoroughly updated to include the latest research with an emphasis on Chapters 6 (Consciousness), 10 (Development) 14 (Abnormal) and 16 (Social Psychology). Lahey weaves scholarship based on empirical research throughout the text, ensuring an accurate portrait of contemporary psychology. The text’s student-friendly writing, clear chapter openers, and fresh applications make the material more rele- vant to students than ever before, and the proven learning system ensures that all students will grasp the concepts presented in the book. Lahey’s hallmark emphasis on diversity and culture remains integrated throughout the text, making this the text for a well rounded introduction to all areas of psychology”—

Provided by publisher.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-07-803516-6 (pbk. : acid-free paper) 1. Psychology—Textbooks. I. Title.

BF121.L214 2011 150—dc22

2011016237

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For Megan, Ted, Erin, Clare, Eamonn, Riley, Hannah, Miller, Mollie,

and Kate.

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vi

Preface xvii

Content Changes xxiii

Before You Begin: Study Skills for Success xxv

part one Introduction and Foundations

chapter one Introduction to Psychology 1

chapter two Research Methods in Psychology 24 chapter three Biological Foundations of Behavior 47 chapter four Interplay of Nature and Nurture 90

part two Awareness

chapter five Sensation and Perception 120 chapter six States of Consciousness 162

part three Learning and Cognition

chapter seven Basic Principles of Learning 193 chapter eight Memory 228

chapter nine Cognition, Language, and Intelligence 263

part four Developmental Psychology

chapter ten Developmental Psychology 303

part five The Self

chapter eleven Motivation and Emotion 349 chapter twelve Personality 394

part six Health and Adjustment

chapter thirteen Stress and Health 424 chapter fourteen Abnormal Behavior 458 chapter fifteen Therapies 497

part seven Social Context

chapter sixteen Social Psychology 526

chapter seventeen Psychology Applied to the Environment and to Professions 561

Glosssary G-2 References R-2 Credits C-1 Name Index NI-1 Subject Index SI-2

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vii

Preface xvii

Content Changes xxiii

Before You Begin: Study Skills for Success xxv

part one

Introduction

and Foundations

chapter one

Introduction to Psychology

¹

Psyche 1 Science 5 Psychology 1 Deﬁ nition of Psychology 2 Goals of Psychology 3

Founding the Science of Psychology 4 Nature of Conscious Experience 5

Wundt, Titchener, and Structuralism 5 J. Henry Alston 5

Max Wertheimer and Gestalt Psychology 6 Functions of the Conscious Mind 6

William James and Functionalism 6 Studies of Memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus and Mary Whiton Calkins 7

Cognitive Psychology 8

Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory 8 Ivan Pavlov 8

John B. Watson and Margaret Floy Washburn 9 Social Learning Theory 9

Nature of the “Unconscious Mind” 9 Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis 9

Humanistic Psychology and the Unconscious Mind 10 Psychometrics: Alfred Binet 10

Neuroscience Perspective 10

Contemporary Perspectives and Specialty Areas in Psychology 13

Sociocultural Perspective 13 Cultural Relativity 14

Sociocultural Factors in the History of Psychology 15

Basic and Applied Areas in Modern Psychology 16 Basic Areas of Modern Psychology 17

Applied Areas of Modern Psychology 17

Relationship between Psychology and Psychiatry 18 What We Know about Human Behavior:

Some Starting Places 19

SUMMARY 21

VISUAL REVIEW OF HISTORICAL TIME LINE 23

chapter two

Research Methods in Psychology

²⁴

Prologue 24

Basic Concepts of Research 25

Empirical Evidence and Operational Deﬁ nitions 25 Theories and Hypotheses 26

Representativeness of Samples 26 Importance of Replication in Research 27 Research Methods 27

Descriptive Studies 27 Survey Method 27

Naturalistic Observation 28 Clinical Method 29 Correlational Studies 29 Formal Experiments 32

Elements and Logic of Formal Experiments 33 Placebo Control in Formal Experiments 35 Blind Formal Experiments 35

Describing and Interpreting Data 36 Descriptive Statistics 36

Descriptive Statistics in Everyday Life 37 Reaching Conclusions from Data 38 Ethical Principles of Research 40

Ethics of Research with Human Participants 40 Ethics of Research with Nonhuman Animals 41

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 44 SUMMARY 45

chapter four

Interplay of Nature and Nurture

⁹⁰

Prologue 90

Nature: Genetic Inﬂ uences on Behavior 91 Do Genes Inﬂ uence Our Behavior and Mental Processes? 91

Genetic Studies of Nonhuman Animal Behavior 91 Genetic Studies of Human Behavior 92

Studies of Twins 93

Studies of Adopted Children 94

Molecular Genetic Mechanisms of Inheritance 94 Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA 94

Polymorphic Genes 94

Dominant and Recessive Genes 96 Polygenic Traits 96

X and Y Chromosomes and Sex 96 Chromosome Abnormalities 97 Genes and Behavior 97

Nurture: Environmental Inﬂ uences 98 Physical Environments 99

Social Environments 99

Culture, Ethnicity, and Identity 99 Culture and Parenting 100 Interplay of Nature and Nurture 101

Gene-Environment Correlation 101 Gene-Environment Interaction 102 Sex, Gender, and Human Diversity 104

Gender Identity and Gender Roles 104

Gender Similarities and Gender Differences 105 Gender Differences in Physical Characteristics 105 Gender Differences in Cognitive Ability

and Achievement 106

Gender Differences in Emotion and Social Behavior 106 Gender Differences in Mating and Sexual Behavior 107 Origins of Gender Differences 108

Sex Differences in the Brain 108 Genetics and Psychological Theory 111

Darwin, James, and Functionalism 111

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Evolutionary Psychology 111

Evolutionary Psychology and Gender Differences 112 Critique of Evolutionary Theory 113

Social-Role Theory of Gender Differences 114 Critique of Social-Role Theory 115

part two Awareness

chapter ﬁ ve

Sensation and Perception

¹²⁰

Prologue 120

Sensation: Receiving Sensory Messages 121 Stimuli: What Messages Can Be Received? 121 Transduction: Translating Messages for the Brain 122 Sensory Limits: How Strong Must Messages Be? 122

Sensory Adaptation 122 Psychophysics 123 Vision: Sensing Light 125

Light: What Is It? 125

The Eye: How Does It Work? 126 Dark and Light Adaptation 127 Color Vision 128

Color Blindness 130

Hearing: Sensing Sound Waves 132 Sound: What Is It? 132

The Ear: How Does It Work? 133 Outer Ear 133

Middle Ear 133 Inner Ear 134 Body Senses 137

Orientation and Movement 137 Vestibular Organ 137

Kinesthetic Sense 138 Skin Senses 138

Pressure and Sensitivity 139 Temperature 139

Pain 139

Pain Gates 140 Phantom Limbs 142

Chemical Senses: The Flavors and Aromas of Life 144 Taste 144

Smell 145

Pheromone Detection 145

Perception: Interpreting Sensory Messages 147 Visual Perception 147

Perceptual Organization 148 Perceptual Constancy 148 Depth Perception 150 Visual Illusions 153 Color Perception 156 Multisensory Integration 156

Motivation, Emotion, and Perception 156

SUMMARY 158

VISUAL REVIEW OF THE SENSE ORGANS 160

chapter six

States of Consciousness

¹⁶²

Prologue 162

Wide Awake: Normal Waking Consciousness 163 Divided Consciousness: Being Two Places (Mentally) at the Same Time 164

The Concept of the Unconscious Mind 164 Sleep and Dreams: Conscious while Asleep 166

Stages of Sleep 166 Hypnagogic State 166

Stages of Light and Deep Sleep 167 REM Sleep and Dreams 168

Autonomic Storms 169 Time Spent Dreaming 169 Non-REM Sleep and Dreams 169 Circadian Rhythms 170

Sleep Deprivation, the Need for Sleep, and Health 171

Dreams 173

The Nature of Dreams 173

Sweet Dreams: The Emotional Content of Dreams 173 Creative and Bizarre Aspects of Dreams 174

Meaning of Dreams 174 Day Residue 174 Dream Interpretation 174

Nightmares and Other Sleep Phenomena 175 Sleep Disorders 175

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Mesmer and Mesmerism 179 Depersonalization 180

Drugs and Altered Consciousness 181 Drug Use: Basic Considerations 183 Psychotropic Drugs 183

Stimulants 183 Depressants 184

Sedatives and Tranquilizers 184 Narcotics 184

Inhalants 185 Hallucinogens 185 Marijuana 185 Designer Drugs 186

Drug Abuse and Dependence 186 Drug Abuse 186

Drug Dependence 186

part three

Learning and Cognition

chapter seven

Basic Principles of Learning

¹⁹³

Prologue 193

Deﬁ nition of Learning 194

Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association 195 Association: The Key Element in Classical

Conditioning 196

Terminology of Classical Conditioning 197 Deﬁ nition of Classical Conditioning 198 Importance of Classical Conditioning 201

Operant Conditioning: Learning from the Consequences of Your Behavior 203

Positive Reinforcement 204

Primary and Secondary Reinforcement 205 Schedules of Positive Reinforcement 205 Shaping 206

Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization 212 Extinction: Learning When to Quit 214

Removing the Source of Learning 215 Spontaneous Recovery and Disinhibition 215 Theoretical Interpretations of Learning 217

Cognition or Connection? 218 Place Learning 218

Latent Learning 218

Insight Learning and Learning Sets 219 Modeling: Learning by Watching Others 221 Biological Factors in Learning 223

chapter eight Memory

²²⁸

Prologue 228

Three Stages of Memory: An Information-Processing View 230

Sensory Register 230 Short-Term Memory 231

Rehearsal in Short-Term Memory: Overcoming STM’s Limited Life Span 231

Chunking in Short-Term Memory: Overcoming STM’s Limited Capacity 232

Long-Term Memory 234

Types of Long-Term Memory: Procedural, Episodic, and Semantic 234

Organization in Long-Term Memory 236 Retrieval of Long-Term Memories 237 Serial Learning 239

Levels of Processing: An Alternative to the Stage Model 240

Deep Processing and Survival Value 240 Elaboration and Deep Processing 241 Forgetting and Why It Occurs 243

Decay Theory 243 Interference Theory 244

Reconstruction (Schema) Theory 245 Motivated Forgetting 248

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Biological Basis of Memory 251

Synaptic Theories of Memory: Search for the Engram 251 Consolidation 252

DNA and Memory 252

Stages of Memory and the Brain 252 Amnesia: Disorders of Memory 254

Retrograde Amnesia 254 Anterograde Amnesia 254

chapter nine

Cognition, Language, and Intelligence

²⁶³

Prologue 263

Deﬁ nition of Cognition 265

Concepts: The Basic Units of Thinking 265 Simple and Complex Concepts 266 Natural Concepts 266

Natural Concepts Are Basic 266

Natural Concepts Are Good Prototypes 268 Thinking and Problem Solving: Using Information to Reach Goals 269

Formulating the Problem 270

Understanding and Organizing the Elements of the Problem 271

Generating and Evaluating Alternative Solutions 271 Emotional Factors in Decision Making 272

Creative Problem Solving: Convergent and Divergent Thinking 273

Language: Symbolic Communication 277 Semantics: The Meaning of What Is Said 277

Generative Property of Language: Elements and Rules 277 Phonemes 278

Morphemes 278 Syntax 278

Language and Thought: The Whorﬁ an Hypothesis 279 Animal Languages: Can We Talk to the Animals? 280 Intelligence: The Sum Total of Cognition 282

Differing Views of Intelligence 283

Intelligence: General or Specifi c Abilities? 283 The Biological Basis of General Intelligence 284 Cognitive Components of Intelligent Behavior 284

Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence 285 Measuring Intelligence: The IQ Test 286

Construction of Intelligence Tests 286 Characteristics of Good Intelligence Tests 288 Tacit Intelligence 289

Individual Differences in Intelligence: Contributing Factors 290

The Importance of Intelligence in Modern Society 291 Are People Becoming More Intelligent? 292

Race-Ethnic Differences in Intelligence and Achievement:

The Narrowing Gap 294

The Bell Curve: Policy Implications of Differences in Intelligence 295

Extremes in Intelligence: Mental Retardation and Giftedness 296

part four

Developmental Psychology

chapter ten

Developmental Psychology

³⁰³

Prologue 303

Basic Processes of Development 304 Nature and Nurture 305

Maturation 305

Early Experience and Critical Periods 306 Imprinting 306

Early Social Deprivation 307 Stage Theories of Development 310

Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development 311 Stage Theories of Moral Development 311

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 311 Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development 313 Erikson’s Stage Theory of Personality Development 314

Normal Development across the Life Span 315 Prenatal Development 317

Development in Infancy and Childhood 318

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Early Childhood: 2 to 7 Years 322

Cognitive Development (Preoperational Stage) 322 Emotional and Social Development 322

Middle Childhood: 7 to 11 Years 323

Cognitive Development (Concrete Operational Stage) 323 Emotional and Social Development 324

Adolesecent Development 325 Physical Development 325 Cognitive Development (Formal Operational Stage) 326 Emotional and Social Development 328

Adolescent Social Development 328 Adolescent Emotions 328

Adulthood: Young Adulthood through Older Adulthood 330 Physical Development 330

Cognitive Development 330

Emotional and Social Development 331 Stages of Adult Life 332

Early Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation (17 to 45 Years) 332 Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation

(40 to 65 Years) 332 Climacteric 334

Later Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair (65 Years On) 334 Evaluation of Stage Theories of Adulthood 335

Causes of Aging and Predictors of Longevity 336 Death and Dying: The Final “Stage” 337

Variations in Development that Make US Unique 339 Getting There at Different Times 340

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 341 VISUAL REVIEW OF STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 347

part ﬁ ve The Self

chapter eleven

Motivation and Emotion

³⁴⁹

Prologue 349

Deﬁ nitions of Motivation and Emotion 351

Psychological Factors in Hunger 354 Thirst: The Regulation of Water Intake 355

Biological Regulation of Thirst 355 Psychological Factors in Thirst 356 Psychological Motives 357

Stimulus Motivation: Seeking Novel Stimulation 357

Optimal Arousal Theory 357

Arousal and Performance: The Yerkes-Dodson Law 358

Afﬁ liation Motivation 358 Achievement Motivation 360

Solomon’s Opponent-Process Theory of Acquired Motives 361

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 362 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives 364 Sexual Motivation and Sexuality 366

Sexual Response Cycle 366

Similarity of Sexual Motivation to Other Primary Motives 368

Differences Between Sexual Motivation and Other Primary Motives 369

Hormones and Other Biological Factors in Sexual Behavior 369

Patterns of Sexual Behavior 370 Sexual Orientation 372

Stigmatization, Stress, and Sexual Orientation 373 Origins of Sexual Orientation 374

Emotions 375

Three Theories of Emotion 377 James-Lange Theory 377 Cannon-Bard Theory 378 Cognitive Theory 379

Role of Learning and Culture in Emotions 381 The Pursuit of Happiness 382

Does Money Buy Happiness? 383 Aggression: Emotional and Motivational Aspects 385

Freud’s Instinct Theory: The Release of Aggressive Energy 386

Frustration-Aggression Theory 386 Social Learning Theory 387

Cognitive Theory of Aggression 387 Violent Youth Gangs 388

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VISUAL REVIEW OF THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 392

chapter twelve Personality

³⁹⁴

Prologue 394

Deﬁ nition of Personality 395

Trait Theory: Describing the Consistencies of Personality 396 Allport’s Trait Theory 396

Five-Factor Model of Personality 397 Importance of Personality Traits 398 Psychoanalytic Theory: Sigmund Freud 401

Freud’s Mind: Three Levels of Consciousness 402 Freud’s Mind: Id, Ego, and Superego 402

Id: The Selfi sh Beast 403

Ego: The Executive of Personality 403 Superego: The Conscience and Ego Ideal 403

Displacement and Identiﬁ cation: Becoming a Member of Society 404

Growing Up: The Stages of Psychosexual Development 404 Oral Stage (Birth to 1 Year) 405

Anal Stage (1 to 3 Years) 405 Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years) 405 Latency Stage (6 to 11 Years) 406 Genital Stage (11 Years On) 406

Theories Derived from Psychoanalysis 407 Carl Jung 407

Alfred Adler 408 Karen Horney 408

Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura 410 Role of Learning in Personality 410 Role of Cognition in Personality 411 Situationism and Interactionism 412 Humanistic Theory: Maslow and Rogers 414

Inner-Directedness and Subjectivity 414 The Self-Concept 414

Self-Actualization 415

Humanism Compared with Classic Psychoanalysis and Social Learning Theory 416

Personality Assessment: Taking a Measure of the Person 418 Interviews and Observational Methods 419

Projective Personality Tests 419

Objective Personality Tests 420 Evaluation of Personality Tests 420

SUMMARY 422

VISUAL REVIEW OF PERSONALITY THEORY 423

part six

Health and Adjustment

chapter thirteen

Stress and Health

⁴²⁴

Prologue 424

Stress: Challenges to Coping 425 Sources of Stress 425

Life Events 426 Frustration 428 Confl ict 428 Pressure 430

Environmental Conditions 431

General Aspects of Stress Reactions 431 Psychological Reactions to Stress 431 Physical Reactions to Stress and Health 432

The General Adaptation Syndrome 432 Depression, Anxiety, and Health 435 Factors that Inﬂ uence Reactions to Stress 436

Prior Experience with the Stress 436 Developmental Factors 437

Predictability and Control 437 Social Support 438

Person Variables in Reactions to Stress: Cognition and Personality 438

Cognitive Factors in Stress Reactions 439

Personality Characteristics and Stress Reactions 439 Person Variables in Reactions to Stress: Gender and Ethnicity 440

Gender Differences in Response to Stress 440 Gender Differences in the Benefi ts of Marriage 441 Fight-or-Flight and Tend-and-Befriend 441 Ethnic Differences in Stress 442

Coping with Stress 443 Effective Coping 443 Ineffective Coping 444

Changing Health-Related Behavior Patterns 447 Learning to Relax 447

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Medical Compliance 450

Become an Advocate for Sustainable Energy 450 Safety Management 452

chapter fourteen

Abnormal Behavior

⁴⁵⁸

Prologue 458

Deﬁ nition of Abnormal Behavior 459

Historical Views of Abnormal Behavior 460 Supernatural Theories 460

Biological Theories 461 Psychological Theories 462

Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior 462 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 462

Public Health Burden of Abnormal Behavior 463 The Problem of Stigma 463

The Concept of Insanity 464 Anxiety Disorders 466

Phobias 466

Generalized and Panic Anxiety Disorders 466 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 468

Stressors That Cause PTSD 468 Terrorism and PTSD 469 Who Develops PTSD? 469

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders 470 Somatoform Disorders 470

Somatization Disorders and Hypochondriasis 471 Conversion Disorders and Somatoform Pain Disorders 471

Dissociative Disorders 472 Depersonalization 472

Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue 472

Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality) 473 Mood Disorders 475

Major Depression 475

Causes of Major Depression 476

Paranoid Schizophrenia 481 Disorganized Schizophrenia 482 Catatonic Schizophrenia 482

Attention-Deﬁ cit/Hyperactivity Disorder 482 Personality Disorders 483

Schizoid Personality Disorder 484 Antisocial Personality Disorder 484 Other Personality Disorders 485 Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders 487

Transvestism and Gender Identity Disorder 487 Fetishism 488

Sexual Sadism and Masochism 488 Voyeurism and Exhibitionism 489 Forced Sexual Behavior 489

Rape 489

Sexual Abuse of Children 489 Sexual Harassment 490

Sexual Dysfunction and Sexual Health 492 Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire 492 Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal 493 Orgasm Dysfunctions 494

SUMMARY 495

chapter ﬁ fteen Therapies

⁴⁹⁷

Prologue 497

Deﬁ nition of Psychotherapy 498

Ethical Standards for Psychotherapy 499 Psychoanalysis 500

Techniques of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 500 Free Association 500

Dream Interpretation 501 Interpretation of Resistance 501 Interpretation of Transference 501 Catharsis 502

Excerpt from Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 502 Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depression 502

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Humanistic Psychotherapy 505 Client-Centered Psychotherapy 505

Excerpt from Client-Centered Psychotherapy 506 Gestalt Psychotherapy 507

Cognitive-Behavior Therapy 508 Fear Reduction Methods 509

Behavioral Activation and Social Skills Training 509 Excerpt from Social Skills Training 510

Cognitive Restructuring 512

Excerpt from Cognitive Restructuring 513 Group and Family Therapy 515

Group Therapy 515 Family Therapy 516 Medical Therapies 518 Drug Therapy 518 Dietary Therapies 519

Electroconvulsive Therapy 519 Transcranial Stimulation 520 Psychosurgery 520

part seven

Social Context

chapter sixteen

Social Psychology

⁵²⁶

Prologue 526

Deﬁ nition of Social Psychology 527 Groups and Social Inﬂ uence 527

Deindividuation 528 Uninvolved Bystanders 528

Working and Solving Problems in Groups 529 Group Problem Solving 530

Conformity, Social Roles, and Obedience 532 Conformity 532

Social Roles and Social Norms 533

Obedience: Direct Infl uence by Authority Figures 534 The Positive Side of Groups 536

Attitudes and Persuasion 538 Origins of Attitudes 538

Persuasion and Attitude Change 538 Characteristics of the Speaker 538 Characteristics of the Message 539 Characteristics of the Listeners 540 Techniques of Social Infl uence 541

Behavior and Attitude Change: Cognitive Dissonance Theory 541

Prejudice and Stereotypes 543 Automatic Prejudice 544

Causes of Stereotypes and Prejudice 544 Combating Prejudice 545

Processes of Person Perception 549

Attribution Processes in Person Perception 549 Negative Information: The Bad Outweighs the Good 549 Primacy Effects: The Importance of First Impressions 550 Interpersonal Attraction: Friendship and Love 551

“Chemistry” of Love and Social Bonding 552 Characteristics of the Other Person

in Interpersonal Attraction 552

Similar and Complementary Characteristics 552 Competence and Our “Ideal Self” 553

Self-Disclosure 553 Physical Attractiveness 553 Characteristics of the Perceiver 555

Personality and Interpersonal Attraction 555 Emotions and Person Perception 555

Gender Differences in Interpersonal Attraction 555 Proximity 556

Mutual Liking 556

Maintaining Relationships 556

Expectations Versus Reality in Relationships 556 Equity in Relationships 557

SUMMARY 559

chapter seventeen Psychology Applied to the E nvironment and to Professions

⁵⁶¹

Prologue 561

Applied Fields of Psychology 563

Environmental Psychology and Sustainability 563

Architectural Design of Workspace and Living Units 563

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Psychology and Work 571

Employee Selection and Evaluation 571 Interviews 572

Tests of Intelligence 572

Tests of Specifi c Abilities, Skills, and Job Knowledge 573 Performance Tests 574

Ratings of Job Performance 574 Assessment Centers 575

Evaluation of Organizational Citizenship 575 Validity of Job Selection Measures 576 Fairness in Employee Selection 578

Gender Biases in Employee Selection 578 Race-Ethnic Biases in Employee Selection 578 Job Satisfaction, Happiness, and Productivity 580

Management Strategies to Improve Job Satisfaction, Happiness, and Productivity 580

Management Strategies to Minimize Social Loafi ng 581 Human Factors Engineering 582

Health Psychology in the Workplace 585

Interrogating Criminal Suspects 590 Interrogation Techniques 590 False Confessions 591 Psychology and Education 592

Direct Instruction 592

Mastery Learning and Intelligent Tutoring Systems 593 Motivating Learning in the Classroom 594

Criterion-Referenced Testing 594 Mainstreaming: Education for Persons with Special Needs 595

SUMMARY 596

Glossary G-2 References R-2 Credits C-1 Name Index NI-1 Subject Index SI-2

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Although the Preface is the fi rst part of Psychology: An Introduction that you read, it is the last part that I write. It is my opportunity to refl ect on the completed project in the hope that these refl ections will help introduce you to the text. Over 11 editions, the unchanging goal of Psychology has been to teach. We (referring to the large group of talented psychologists, editors, consultants, and reviewers who have worked with me) have centered our efforts on giving you course material that fully captures the immense importance and fascination of the scientifi c study of ourselves.

I have done my best to teach the concepts and facts of psychology in the clearest and most exciting manner possible. In addition, I worked very hard to make sure that the scientifi c basis of what is said is as strong as the science will allow. The gratify- ing responses of both instructors and students to the fi rst ten editions of Psychology have been a wonderful source of encouragement for these efforts. In the three years since the last revision, the thousands of psychologists at work in research have given us an enormous amount of new information. The rapidity of scientifi c advance is always striking to me when I read the wide range of psychological literatures needed to keep up with the fi eld. This progress is refl ected in many changes in the content of the Psychology. Most of these changes refl ect confi rmations and relatively minor modifi cations of existing hypotheses, but there have been some notable advances in knowledge and theory. In addition, I have made a number of changes designed to teach psychology better.

Hallmark Features

While incorporating new material, the time-tested format of Psychology has not changed in the 11th edition. Students like the strong pedagogical format of the text, and research continues to support its use. As before, learning and memory are enhanced through the use of advance organizers followed by clearly written text, with explicit organizational cues, and repeated reviews.

Psychology offers thorough topic coverage and standard organization designed to fi t courses as they are most commonly taught. But it differs signifi cantly from other textbooks in two main ways: First, every effort has been made to create a writing style that is—as one former student kindly described it—friendly. Psychology does not attempt to impress students with the arcane complexities of the science of psychology. It was written to provide a clear, informative, challenging, exciting, and personal introduction to the science of psychology. All the necessary complexities are taught, but in the clearest manner possible. Second, Psychology supports meaningful learning.

In Support of Meaningful Learning

Psychology differs from other textbooks in its emphasis on meaningful learning. It contains many elements designed to enhance learning and remembering based on current models of semantic memory. The content of the fi rst course in psychology can be thought of as a hierarchical organization of concepts and facts. Quite simply, this means that information about psychology is not a disorganized jumble of facts. Some information “goes with” other information, some concepts are detailed elaborations of more general concepts, and so on. To improve learning and memory of the contents

Preface

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1. Advance organizers. Considerable research indicates that students learn and retain information better when they have an advance understanding of the hierarchical organization of the new information being learned. To accomplish this, the student is given two kinds of advance organizers before reading the main body of the text. The student is fi rst presented with a chapter outline of the major topics covered within the chapter, a device common to many textbooks. But to add to the effectiveness of this bare-bones overview, a prose organizer, called the Prologue, both piques the student’s interest with exciting information and highlights the major concepts in the forthcoming chapter. Thus, the student is provided with two forward looks at the chapter to create a cognitive organization on which to “hang”

new facts and concepts.

2. Questions to stimulate critical thinking. An important feature of Psychology is the set of questions designed to stimulate critical thinking. These critical thinking questions appear at the end of each section. They are designed to catch the student’s attention and stimulate thought for two reasons. First, it is important that students do not passively absorb new information but, rather, critically evaluate and ponder what they are learning. Moreover, it may be more effective to teach critical thinking skills through the content of a specifi c course than in the abstract. And what course is more appropriate than psychology—in which human beings ponder themselves?

Second, current research suggests that thinking about what you have just learned leads to deeper semantic processing and better retention. Thus, both as an aid to student reading and as a stimulus for classroom discussion, these high-interest questions at the end of each section are important pedagogical tools. To help students prepare to use these critical thinking questions, a discussion on critical thinking appears in the “Before You Begin” section.

3. Nested hierarchical reviews. The interrelationships among new concepts are highlighted further in review and summary sections. Following each major section within each chapter, the content of that section is briefl y reviewed in prose. In addition, students can test their knowledge of each section in the Check Your Learning sections. At the end of each chapter, the main content of the chapter is again summarized, but this time in a hierarchical outline that visually highlights the organization of the material.

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chapter one

Introduction to psychology

Chapter Outline PSYCHE 1 SCIENCE 5 PSYCHOLOGY 1 Deﬁ nition of Psychology 2 Goals of Psychology 3 Founding the Science of Psychology 4 Contemporary Perspectives and Specialty Areas in Psychology 13 What We Know about Human Behavior:

Some Starting Places 19 SUMMARY 21 VISUAL REVIEW OF HISTORICAL TIME LINE 23

Psyche 1 Science 5 Psychology Welcome to psychology! You are invited to learn about one of life’s most interesting subjects—you. You enrolled in this course know- ing that it had something to do with people. But what exactly is psychology?

The earliest origins of psychology are found in the writings of the ancient Greek philosophers about the nature of life, particularly in the work of Aristotle. Aristotle, who was born in 384 B.C.E., was broadly interested in the nature of living things. He collected and dissected plants and animals to see how their organs sustained life. He studied reproduction to see how life was recreated in each generation, and he studied the everyday actions of living people as they reasoned, spoke, remembered, and learned. In his later years, Aristotle discussed

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There are no right or wrong answers to the following questions. They are presented to help you become an active reader and think critically about what you have just read.

1. How do your culture and ethnic identity influence your experiences as a college student?

2. Are there elements of both collectivism and individualism in your culture? If so, how is individualism expressed in your culture?

Thinking Critically about Psychology

Correct Answers: 1. c (p. 99), 2. a (p. 99), 3. d (p. 100), 4. b (p. 100)

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Human lives are not just the product of our genes. On the contrary, our behavior and mental processes are profoundly shaped by our physical and social environments. There is growing evidence that exposure to some toxic chemicals early in life can inﬂ uence neu- rotransmitter functioning and reduce intellectual ability. Most psychological studies of the environment are concerned with how we learn how to behave from others, however. To understand how we learn how the social environment shapes our lives, we must understand culture and ethnic identity. Culture refers to the patterns of behavior, beliefs, and values that are shared by a group of people. One important feature that distinguishes cultures from around the world is collectivism versus individualism. In collectivistic cultures, the emphasis is on the collective well-being of the family and the larger culture, not on the individual. In individualistic cultures, the emphasis is on the well-being of individual. Ethnic identity refers to each person’s sense of belonging to a particular group and of sharing that group’s beliefs, attitudes, skills, music, and ceremonies. Members of an ethnic group often share racial characteristics, but there are many exceptions to this rule.

Review

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117 Chapter 4 provides an overview of how genes and environments

work together in complex ways to promote human diversity.

I. Genetic inﬂ uences on behavior and mental processes are studied in different ways in nonhuman animals and humans.

A. In nonhuman animals, methods such as selective breed- ing can be used to determine if an aspect of behavior is influenced by genetic factors.

B. In humans, “natural experiments” must be used to sepa- rate genetic and environmental influences on behavior and mental processes.

1. Because identical and fraternal twins share the same home environments, but differ in the extent to which they share the same genes, studies of twins can be used to study genetic influences.

2. Studies of adopted children can determine if they resemble their biological parents (from whom they received their genes) or their adoptive parents (from whom they received their home environments) more on a psychological trait.

C. Sequences of DNA (genes) on chromosomes in the cells of our body provide the genetic mechanism of inheritance.

Summary

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4. Visual organizational cues. Using hierarchical outlines in the end-of-chapter summaries is only one way in which the student is shown the organization of the new material. Close attention has been paid to the use of visual cues—such as typeface, type size, color of type, and indentations—to repeatedly indicate the organization of the text. The difference between this book and others is intentionally subtle at fi rst glance,

but it is powerful. Similarly, in diagrams and fi gures, colors were chosen not to be decorative but to show students which elements are related and which are different.

In addition, lists—like the one you are reading now—have been frequently (but not excessively) used to show that each element in the list is at the same level of organization and is subordinate to the title of the list.

1. Standardization. Because intelligence tests are designed to compare the performance of one person with others, the test must be given in the same way to every person. If this were not so, differences in performance might be due to differences in the way the test is administered rather than to true differences in ability. For this reason, properly designed psychological tests contain detailed instructions telling the examiner how to administer the test to each person in the same standardized way.

2. Norms. To compare the individual’s score with that of others, the developer of the test must give the test to a large sample of people who represent the general population. For example, you could not develop an intelligence test for adults by giving the test only to college students, because they are brighter than the general population. The sample used in evaluating the performance of individuals given the test is called the normative sample. It must be large

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higher general intelligence have better connected neurons. A greater ability to form neural connections is hypothesized to lead to better general intelligence in two ways:

1. Greater ability to form neural connections means that a person with high g is better able to learn from experience.

2. Greater interconnectedness of the neurons means that the brain can process information more quickly. Persons with higher g have faster reflexes, have faster reaction times, and take less time to make simple judgments (such as which of two lines is shorter). This greater speed of processing is thought to be the primary basis for greater general intelligence. As we will see in the next section, however, the fact that more intelligent people process information more quickly does not mean that they do everything more quickly in cognitive tasks. Sometimes taking our time leads to better problem solving.

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Left eye Left visual field

Right visual field

Right eye

Optic nerve

Visual cortex Optic chiasm Optic tract

Optic nerve

Visual cortex Optic tract

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5. Verbal cues to organization. Another very important way to help readers see how concepts and facts are related is simply to tell them in words. Therefore, this textbook makes many references to the organization of the new information. This is done in two main ways: First, when a newly introduced concept is related to another concept that was discussed in an earlier section, this fact is specifi cally pointed out. Second, information that is subordinate to a concept is frequently introduced in a way that makes that relationship very clear (for example, “The two factors that cause forgetting in short-term memory are . . .”). Although

these cues are subtle to avoid interrupting the fl ow of the discussion, they have been added to help improve the student’s comprehension and memory.

The use of these pedagogical devices was chosen over two other pedagogical approaches after much consideration. I chose not to use the SQ3R (survey, question, read, recite, review) method of organizing the text because in SQ3R it is the author, not the student, who must ask the questions. Text that is written in SQ3R format reduces student involvement and discourages the student from critically evaluating and deeply processing the new information. It is much better for the student to use SQ3R than for the author to use it. Therefore, instructions to the student on the use of SQ3R are included in the Study Skills for Success section that follows the Preface. For those instructors who wish to use learning objectives, we have included them in the Instructor’s Manual that accompanies Psychology; each question in each of the Test Banks is also keyed to one of the Learning Objectives.

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For the Instructor

Online Learning Center (OLC) www.mhhe.com/

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• Instructor’s Manual. The Instructor’s Manual provides a wide variety of tools and resources for presenting the course, including learning objectives, chapter outlines and summaries, ideas for lectures and discussions, critical thinking questions, current controversies, learning style activities, suggested readings, websites, and fi lms, and handouts.

• Test Bank. By increasing the rigor of the Test Bank development process, McGraw-Hill aims to raise the bar for student assessment. Over 4,000 multiple-choice, 750 true/false, 340 fi ll-in-the- blank, and 70 essay questions across two test banks were prepared by a coordinated team of subject matter experts. Each question and set of possible answers were methodically vetted by a team of instructors for accuracy, clarity, effectiveness, and accessibility, and each is annotated for level of diffi culty, Bloom’s Taxonomy, APA Learning Outcomes, and corresponding coverage in the text. Organized by chapter, the questions are designed to test factual, applied, and conceptual understanding. The test banks are compatible with McGraw-Hill’s computerized testing program EZ Test, and most Course Management systems.

• PowerPoint Presentations. The PowerPoint Pre- sentations cover the key points of each chapter and include fi gures and charts from the text. The presentations serve as an organizational and a navigational tool integrated with examples and activities from an expert teacher. The slides can be used as is or modifi ed to meet the needs of the individual instructor.

• Image Gallery. The Image Gallery features the complete set of fi gures and tables from the text. These images are available for download and can be easily embedded into instructors’ PowerPoint slides.

Create

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in 3–5 business days or a complimentary electronic review copy (eComp) via email in about one hour. Go to www.

mcgrawhillcreate.com today and register. Experience how McGraw-Hill Create empowers you to teach your students your way.

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