To be sure that you have learned the key points from the preceding section, cover the list of correct answers and try to answer each question. If you give an incorrect answer to any question, return to the page given next to the correct answer to see why your answer was not correct.
1. The term refers to all the patterns of behavior, beliefs, and values that are shared by a group of people.
a) ethnic identity c) culture
b) race d) sexual orientation
2. The term refers to each person’s sense of belonging to a particular group and sharing that group’s beliefs, attitudes, skills, music, and ceremonies.
a) ethnic identity c) culture
b) race d) sexual orientation
3. Cultures that emphasize the well-being of the larger group are called a) ethnic groups. c) individualistic cultures.
b) mainstream cultures. d) collectivistic cultures.
4. All members of an ethnic group are always of the same race.
a) true b) false
Check Your Learning
There are no right or wrong answers to the following questions. They are presented to help you become an active reader and think critically about what you have just read.
1. How do your culture and ethnic identity influence your experiences as a college student?
2. Are there elements of both collectivism and individualism in your culture? If so, how is individualism expressed in your culture?
Thinking Critically about Psychology
Correct Answers: 1. c (p. 99), 2. a (p. 99),
3. d (p. 100), 4. b (p. 100)
correlated, “passively.” This means that the person does not have to do anything to cause the genes and environments to become correlated. For example, college students like you almost always have above-average intelligence. Your intelligence is high partly because you inherited genes that foster high intelligence from your intelli- gent parents (Silventoinen & others, 2006). In addition, your intelligence is probably high because your intelligent parents created an intellectually stimulating environ- ment at home. Therefore, you passively received both genes for high intelligence and a stimulating environment from your parents. You did not do anything to cause your genes and environment to be correlated. Nonetheless, you got a “double dose” of what it takes to be intelligent—the right genes and the right environment.
2. Active gene-environment correlation. Genes and environments also can become correlated though the actions of the individual. Let’s consider young children who are genetically disposed to be antisocial as an example. It is clear from twin and adoption studies that antisocial behavior (aggression and disobedience) is moder- ately infl uenced by genes (Rhee & Waldman, 2002). Unfortunately, children who are genetically predisposed to be antisocial often behave in aggressive and disobedi- ent ways that create experiences that make them even more likely to be antisocial.
Parents and teachers often respond to this behavior with demeaning criticism and harsh punishment. Similarly, their well-behaved peers reject and avoid contact with aggressive and disobedient children. Furthermore, antisocial children often seek out the few classmates who are also aggressive and disobedient, and even may join anti- social gangs when they are older. As a result, the genes that increase the likelihood of antisocial behavior also lead to experiences that further increase risk for antisocial behavior. In order words, their genes and environments become actively correlated through their actions.
Gene-Environment Interaction
In addition to gene-environment correlation, there is a second highly important way in which genes and environments work together. Genes can infl uence how experiences operate, and experiences can infl uence how genes operate. This means that two people with different genes often respond differently to the same environment. In addition, the same genes can have different effects on the psychological experiences in two peo- ple who experience different environments. The phenomenon in which genes infl u- ence how environments work and environments infl uence how genes work is called gene-environment interaction (Rutter, 2006).
For example, children who are physically maltreated often engage in serious anti- social behavior when they grow up. Not all maltreated children are antisocial, how- ever. What determines how different children are infl uenced by the experience of being maltreated? There is now strong evidence that gene-environment interaction provides part of the answer. Several studies show that maltreated children who have one version of a particular gene are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior than are maltreated children with the other version of this gene (Caspi & Moffi tt, 2006;
Kim-Cohen & others, 2006). The gene is important because it codes for the level of an enzyme that controls the amount of several neurotransmitters that are involved in our neural responses to stress. Children who have the version of the gene that results in low enzyme activity are at high risk for antisocial behavior, but only if they experience maltreatment (Caspi & Moffi tt, 2006). This is an example of gene-environment inter- action, because the effect on behavior of the experience of maltreatment depends on the version of the gene (which infl uences activity of several neural systems), and the infl uence of the version of the gene on behavior depends on the child’s experiences.
Apparently, the infl uence of maltreatment on behavior is different when the neural systems involved in stress response are more or less responsive due to the genetic dif- ference (Caspi & Moffi tt, 2006).
gene-environment interaction The phenomenon in which genes infl uence how environments infl uence us and environments infl uence how genes infl uence us.
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Sometimes, gene-environment interaction operates at the level of the gene itself.
One of the most important developments in genetics in recent years has been the dis- covery that gene expression is variable. This means that the gene does not lead to the synthesis of proteins in the same way in different environments. For example, a gene might be expressed under conditions of extreme stress (resulting in protein synthesis), but remain silent (resulting in no protein synthesis) when life is easy (Caspi & Moffi tt, 2006). In addition, there is revolutionary new evidence that some genes that infl uence neural functioning are “turned on” or “turned off ” when new memories are formed (Levenson & Sweatt, 2005; Miller & Sweatt, 2007). Figure 4.4 illustrates the complex interplay of genes and the environment on our behavior and mental processes (Gottes- man, 2001; Johnston & Edwards, 2002).
gene expression The physical chain effects through which genes determine which proteins are synthesized to create the structure of neurons, glands, and other bodily structures.
Figure 4.4
Genes infl uence our psychological lives by coding for the synthesis (or creation) of certain proteins, which infl uence the nature of our neurons, endocrine glands, and other bodily structures. The nature of our neurons and other structures, in turn, infl uences our behavior. Genes often operate through gene-environment correlations and gene-environment interactions. This means that (a) the genes that infl uence our behavior often become correlated with aspects of our environment that infl uence our behavior, and (b) the expression of genes depends on the environment, and the infl uence of the environment depends on our genes.
Genes (DNA)
Protein creation
Nature of neurons (growth, connections,
receptors)
Behavior and mental processes
Physical and social environment
Genes often operate through gene-environment correlations and gene-environment inter- actions. Gene-environment correlation means that the genes that infl uence our behavior often co-occur with aspects of our environment that infl uence the same aspects of behav- ior. This can happen passively, because we receive our genes from the same parents who create our childrearing environments, but it also happens when our behavior (which is infl uenced by our genes) actively changes our environment. Gene-environment interaction means that the expression of genes depends on the environment, and the infl uence of the environment depends on the genes.
To be sure that you have learned the key points from the preceding section, cover the list of correct answers and try to answer each question. If you give an incorrect answer to any question, return to the page given next to the correct answer to see why your answer was not correct.
1. Human behavior and mental processes are influenced by .
a) heredity c) the environment
b) both factors in interplay d) none of these 2. Gene-environment correlations can come about .
a) actively c) both actively and passively
b) passively d) intentionally
3. The same version of a polymorphic gene can be expressed in different ways under different conditions, such as under different levels of stress.
a) true b) false