Although the infl uence of heredity on human behavior and mental processes is signifi - cant, the events that we experience in our environments play a profoundly important role as well. We are far from being rigidly programmed by our genes. Even highly
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heritable physical characteristics are infl uenced by environmental factors. For exam- ple, even though physical height is strongly infl uenced by heredity, the average height in some countries has increased by more than 3 inches since World War II owing to improvements in nutrition and medical care (Angoff, 1988). Even the strongest esti- mate of the role of genetics in the formation of our personalities leaves a major role to be played by our child rearing, the stresses and strains of our lives, our social relation- ships, and other psychological factors. Heredity and experience always work together to infl uence our psychological characteristics.
Physical Environments
When psychologists speak of the important role of the environment in shaping our lives, we are referring to both the physical and the psychological environment. One reason to be concerned about water and air pollution is that there is growing evi- dence that some of the chemicals we are exposed to can infl uence human behavior and mental processes. For example, a number of studies suggest that high levels of lead, mercury, and other heavy metals in the blood might infl uence neurotransmitter functioning and reduce the intellectual ability of children (Hubbs-Tait & others, 2005, 2007; Lanphear & others, 2005; Shih & others, 2006). There is even stronger evidence that greater exposure to alcohol during pregnancy has a causal impact on the level of aggressive and rule-breaking behavior later in childhood (D’Onofrio & others, 2007).
Because it is possible that our physical environment is harming us in important ways, a great deal more research on the impact of environmental exposures to chemicals on human behavior and mental processes is needed.
Social Environments
Human beings are profoundly infl uenced by our social environments. Our parents, sib- lings, friends, and neighborhoods all infl uence us (Richter, 2006). The language that we speak, the foods that we eat, and the beliefs that we hold are all infl uenced by other people. For example, parents, siblings, friends, and neighborhoods all infl uence the likelihood that an adolescent will smoke cigarettes and suffer the health consequences caused by smoking (Picotte & others, 2006; Simons-Morton & others, 2004; van Len- the & Mackenbach, 2006).
Culture, Ethnicity, and Identity. The culture and the ethnic group to which we belong are prime sources of the social infl uences that infl uence our behavior and make one individual different from another. Indeed, it is impossible to fully under- stand human diversity without understanding the role of culture, ethnic identity, and gender identity (Heine & Norenzayan, 2006; Lehman, Chiu, & Schaller, 2004;
Miller, 1999).
Culture is defi ned as the patterns of behavior, beliefs, and values that are shared by a group of people. Culture includes everything—from language and superstitions to moral beliefs and food preferences—that we learn from the people with whom we live. During the 1990s, I lived and worked in Miami for three years. There I met several persons who were born in Cuba and had moved to the United States. They brought with them all of the beliefs, attitudes, and traditions of Cuban culture, but they had become a part of the culture of the United States. To fully understand my Miami friends, you would need to understand the ways Cuban and U.S. cultures are similar and different and how each has infl uenced their lives.
An ethnic group is composed of the descendants of a common group of ances- tors, usually from a particular country or area. Ethnic identity refers to each person’s sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group and of sharing that group’s beliefs, atti- tudes, skills, music, ceremonies, and the like. Often members of less powerful ethnic
culture Patterns of behavior, beliefs, and values shared by a group of people.
ethnic group Group of persons who are descendants of a common group of ancestors.
ethnic identity Each person’s sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group.
groups in a country also share a history of discrimination and repression by more powerful ethnic groups (French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006).
Members of an ethnic group often share racial characteristics, but there are many exceptions to this rule. My friend Maria is an immigrant to the United States from the Dominican Republic. She grew up speaking Spanish and learned English only after moving to the United States as a teenager. She sees herself as Hispanic, but she is of African descent and also identifi es with her fellow African Americans. Her race is an important part of her ethnic identity, but it is only one part of it.
Culture and Parenting. Parents from all cultures want their children to be “well behaved,” but they often defi ne appropriate behavior differently and believe in differ- ent methods of child rearing. For this reason, we must understand cultural differences in parenting (Rubin, 1998). Consider one major difference among cultures: In col- lectivistic cultures, such as the Chinese, Japanese, and Indian cultures, the emphasis is on the well-being of the family and the larger culture, not on the well-being of each individual. In individualistic cultures, such as the mainstream culture in the United States, the emphasis is on the individual rather than the group.
The kinds of behavior that help a person succeed in collectivistic and individu- alistic cultures are different in some cases, and, therefore, parents raise their children differently in some ways. For example, in the United States, most parents believe that being shy and inhibited places children at a disadvantage—they would prefer for their children to be outgoing and assertive. This is because the individuals who assert them- selves most confi dently are most likely to succeed as individuals. In Chinese families, however, shyness and inhibition are viewed as advantages, because they help the child fi t into the group and yield to its wishes. It is not surprising, then, that Chinese parents praise their shy children, whereas American parents disapprove of shy behavior and sometimes seek mental health treatment for their shy children (Rubin, 1998).
Another difference between Chinese and mainstream U.S. cultures refl ects the relative emphasis on academic achievement in the two cultures and differences in how it is encouraged. In the United States, Chinese immigrant parents teach mathematics skills to their young children in more formal ways and structure their children’s use of time more than European American parents do (Huntsinger, Jose, & Larson, 1998).
Controlling for other factors, such as parental income and education, the parenting practices of Chinese American parents appear to lead to higher mathematics achieve- ment among their children (Huntsinger, Jose, & Larson 1998). Importantly, the two groups of children do not differ in terms of personal adjustment, suggesting that the greater emphasis on academic achievement is not personally harmful to the Chinese American children. In these and many other ways, parenting refl ects the varying goals and beliefs of people living in different cultures.
Human lives are not just the product of our genes. On the contrary, our behavior and mental processes are profoundly shaped by our physical and social environments. There is growing evidence that exposure to some toxic chemicals early in life can infl uence neu- rotransmitter functioning and reduce intellectual ability. Most psychological studies of the environment are concerned with how we learn how to behave from others, however. To understand how we learn how the social environment shapes our lives, we must under- stand culture and ethnic identity. Culture refers to the patterns of behavior, beliefs, and values that are shared by a group of people. One important feature that distinguishes cul- tures from around the world is collectivism versus individualism. In collectivistic cultures, the emphasis is on the collective well-being of the family and the larger culture, not on the individual. In individualistic cultures, the emphasis is on the well-being of individual. Ethnic identity refers to each person’s sense of belonging to a particular group and of sharing that group’s beliefs, attitudes, skills, music, and ceremonies. Members of an ethnic group often share racial characteristics, but there are many exceptions to this rule.
Review
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To be sure that you have learned the key points from the preceding section, cover the list of correct answers and try to answer each question. If you give an incorrect answer to any question, return to the page given next to the correct answer to see why your answer was not correct.
1. The term refers to all the patterns of behavior, beliefs, and values that are shared by a group of people.
a) ethnic identity c) culture
b) race d) sexual orientation
2. The term refers to each person’s sense of belonging to a particular group and sharing that group’s beliefs, attitudes, skills, music, and ceremonies.
a) ethnic identity c) culture
b) race d) sexual orientation
3. Cultures that emphasize the well-being of the larger group are called a) ethnic groups. c) individualistic cultures.
b) mainstream cultures. d) collectivistic cultures.
4. All members of an ethnic group are always of the same race.
a) true b) false
Check Your Learning
There are no right or wrong answers to the following questions. They are presented to help you become an active reader and think critically about what you have just read.
1. How do your culture and ethnic identity influence your experiences as a college student?
2. Are there elements of both collectivism and individualism in your culture? If so, how is individualism expressed in your culture?
Thinking Critically about Psychology
Correct Answers: 1. c (p. 99), 2. a (p. 99),
3. d (p. 100), 4. b (p. 100)