BUKU AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLINGUISTICS

John Clark, Colin Yallop and Janet Fletcher, An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology (Third Edition). No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted under the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without prior permission from the publisher.

Part IV Sociolinguistics and Social Justice 309

There are also materials for instructors, including discussion topics and guides to the explorations and exercises provided in the textbook. And we will cover all these topics, along with many others - what social class and ethnicity can do with language use, why we don't always 'say what we mean', the role of language in education.

Key Concepts

Grammatical Judgments

For example, speakers in some areas of the Midwestern United States may utter sentences such as 'The car needs to be washed'. while others would say 'The cars must be washed' or 'The car must be washed.'. For example, we can say: 'That's the fence the cow jumped over', which is understandable if it's somewhat steep, but most speakers would agree that 'the fence the cow jumped over' does not follow English word order rules and is largely unintelligible .

Variation in Greetings

For example, in the next chapter we will discuss how a sense of belonging contributes to the classification of a particular code as a language or dialect. In Chapter 3, we will take a closer look at how people use language to construct their identities as members of particular groups.

Idiolects

The key question addressed here is the nature of the relationship between a particular language and the culture in which it is used. Sapir recognized the close connection between language and culture, arguing that they are inextricably linked, so that you cannot understand or appreciate one without knowing the other.

Translatability

In it we will outline some of the traditions of this study based on ethnography (chapter 9), the topics in the field of pragmatics that overlap in sociolinguistics (chapter 10) and the research of the analytical nature of discourse (chapter 11). Language, gender and sexuality, one of the "big growth areas" in the study of language, is the first of these.

Naming Varieties

Lippi-Green (2012) writes about the "myth of the standard language", citing Crowley's (2003) work on the standard as an "idealized language". The standard variety is also often regarded as the natural, proper and appropriate language of those who use - or should use - it.

Standard Pronunciation?

Regional differences in the way a language is spoken is probably one of the easiest ways to observe diversity in a language. For example, when searching for the characteristics of English dialects and displaying them.

Naming Varieties, Again

Another interesting pattern in the verbal system of AAVE is the use of zero copula. For Latino English speakers, it is important to realize that they develop because of the varieties of English spoken in a community, not because of Spanish input. He was choking on it (stress on the first syllable of the word 'choking'; typical of most American English dialects).

Formality in Introductions

English accents and dialects: an introduction to the social and regional varieties of English in the British Isles. Looking at English Changes: An Introduction to the Study of Language Changes in Standard English in the Twentieth Century. Rappin on the Copula Coffin: Theoretical and Methodological Issues in the Analysis of Copula Variation in African American English.

Judgments Again

A study that makes use of the community of practice construct for the study of language and identities is Bucholtz (1999), a study of language in Many of the ideas and questions involved in the study of communities of practice, communities of practice and social networks have been incorporated in the scholarship on language and identity. In the next two sections, we will look at two strands of research that address how such dogmatic notions of language and social groups are an important part of the study of sociolinguistics.

Slang

What emerges from such work is an understanding of the attitudes people have about the ways of speaking associated with particular regions. In immigration situations, usually within three generations, members of the minority group switch to the dominant language. Such aspects of Berlin's linguistic landscape bring us to the next topic we wish to explore in relation to multilingualism – attitudes towards particular languages and their speakers.

Figure 4.2 Linguistic landscapes in Berlin, Germany: Your multicultural fresh market

Everyday Multilingualism

This latter feeling about the natural superiority of the H variety is likely to be reinforced by the fact that there will be a considerable amount of literature on that variety, and virtually none on the others. The H variant is also likely to be learned in some formal setting, for example in classrooms or as part of religious or cultural indoctrination. Traditionally, the H variety is associated with an elite and the L variety with everyone else.

A Diglossic Situation?

However, we will continue to use the term code-switching in the context of discussing particular studies that use that term. Research on code-switching constraints focuses on switches within a single sentence (called intra-sentential code-switching), as in the following examples with English and Spanish. As the term itself suggests, metaphorical code-switching has an affective dimension to it: the choice of code carries symbolic meaning, that is, the language matches the message.

Accommodation or Mockery?

One would assume that French in Printemps would be the language most likely to be used by buyers and shop assistants, and that Jung would attract the most use of Alsatian; Magmod would be somewhere in the middle. The main idea of this model is that, for a given interaction, there is an unmarked choice, that is, a code that is expected in the specific context. This model is illustrated in a study of a Malawian family living in the United States and the switches between English and Chichewa (Myers-Scotton 2002).

The Unmarked Code in the Classroom

Another important issue in the study of multilingual discourse and identity concerns the acceptance by other interlocutors of the identities that speakers construct for themselves. Write a short analysis of the speakers' use of language, using one of the approaches described in the chapter. The role of code-switching in creating an outsider identity in bilingual film.

Lingua Francas and Foreign Languages

There are two interrelated issues involved in discussing the relationship between P/C languages and second language acquisition. First is the question of the similarities between these two processes; second is the role of second language acquisition in the development of computer languages. The development of embedded clauses, for example of relative clauses, is one feature of the process of elaboration.

Table 5.1 Pidgins and creoles by lexifier language Lexifier Language Number Listed Examples

Another View: ‘Broken English’

Aceto also noted the lack of any evidence of a creole continuum or decreolization in some lesser-known English creole languages in the Caribbean (Aceto. Patrick (1999), Aceto (1999) and LePage and Taburet-Keller (1985) argue that in some cases the concept of the creole continuum arises from simplification and manipulation of the data rather than trying to confront the evidence in all its complexity All argue that the creole continuum does not explain the linguistic choices made by speakers.

Continua

There are also cases of language development that seem more clearly to result from a combination of two separate varieties. Thomason (2001) distinguishes these languages from creoles in that there are only two languages involved and components of the mixed language can easily be traced to one or the other language. The social circumstances in which mixed languages arise are different from what we know about the social environments in which P/C languages develop.

Language Contact Phenomena

In Silvia Kouwenberg and John Victor Singler (eds.), The Handbook of Pidgin and Creole Studies. Consequently, as Le Page says, 'the dialect areas outlined on the maps by the isoglosses were artefacts of the geographer; they had to be compared against stereotypes like "southern dialect" or "Alemannic" or "langue d'oc", concepts often associated in the minds of outsiders with just one or two variables that characterize a complete, discrete system.' . This assumption has been called 'the axiom of categoricality' (Chambers as it treats linguistic variables as if they were categorical in the speech of an individual - and from there it is implied that they are categorical in regional dialects.

Free Variation?

Another is the collection, analysis and treatment of the data we consider relevant. Possibly the greatest contribution was in the development of the use of the linguistic variable, the basic conceptual tool needed to do this kind of work (see Wolfram 1991). In much of his work in New York City, Labov (1966) selected five phonological variables: the (the) variable, the initial consonant in words such as thin and three; the (dh) variable, the initial consonant in words like there and then; the (r) variable, r-pronunciation in words like place and far; the (a) variable, the pronunciation of the vowel in words like bad and back; and the (o) variable, the pronunciation of the vowel in words like dog and caught.

Stereotypes

One factor that has been prominent in sociolinguistic studies of variation is social class membership. Consequently, the resulting social class designation given to any individual may vary from study to study. Go to the online companion to the text for a link to a BBC survey on social class in Britain which specifies seven social class categories.).

Social Class

In Chapter 7 we will have more to say about this use of the grid structure in the study of linguistic variation. In a random sample, everyone in the sampled population has an equal chance of being selected. Wolfram also selected twelve white informants from the highest social class in the Detroit Project, again by age and gender.

Research Design

In the following text, identify all the contexts for the linguistic variable of the copula (that is the verb to be). In the most formal situation, these two boys produced the percentages of -ing and -in' reported in figure 7.1; note that the model boy used much more of the more formal variant. Fischer's conclusion is that 'the choice between the -ing and the -in' variants appears to be related to sex, class, personality (aggressive/ . cooperative) and mood (tense/relaxed) of the speaker, with the formality of the speaker . conversation and to the specific verb being spoken.'.

Figure 6.3 H-dropping means for five social groups

Gender, Standardness, and Formality

A further analysis of the department store's data showed that in Saks it was older people who used r-pronunciation less. The crossover shown in Figure 7.4 could at least theoretically be the result of the way the data has been processed. But the fact that it occurs for both wordlists and pairs gives us some confidence in the correctness of Labov's claims.

Figure 7.4 Pronunciation of (r) in New York City by social class and style of speech

Hypercorrection

Second, holding social class constant, the less formal the style, the greater the prevalence of the nonstandard variant. So there seems to be a big difference in the use of the (z) between middle class and working class people in Detroit. That there is a significant difference between the two groups on each side seems very likely, but we cannot be sure of the significance of the difference between any adjacent pairs.