CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Previous Studies
This chapter provides an example of how doing the analysis and to conduct research to create better research. That is very helpful for the writer, since it also has a function to regard new research findings. Further, in order to do the proper analysis related to language and gender, the writer reviews four previous studies that discussed similar topics that can be seen as follows:
Table 2.1 Previous studies
Studies Objectives Method Finding
Nabilah / 2019 The use of language features between Men and women on youtube vlog
To answer what types of men and women's language feature on Youtube vlog and the purpose of those features.
Descriptive Qualitative method
- The findings showed that five features had been classified as men's and women's language features.
- While the other language features were not found, such as tag
question and minimal response.
Ibkar / 2017 Gender characteristics In a
conversation on social media
Determine female characteristics speech in the form of text and factors used those features.
Sampling and Participatory- Observation method
- Indicates female characteristics are not the same as Lakoff said. The produce hedges, politeness, and empty adjective also in a similar way to male
Sood / 2018 Language Style Used By Women Accounts On Instagram Captions
to examine some women accounts with the most followed and including the top teen Instagram account with the most followers worldwide as of September 2018.
Descriptive Qualitative method
- Draws that there are seven Instagram posts and the caption appropriate with the kinds and
characteristics of language style.
- Prove caption consist of language style are, formal style, informal style, casual style, colloquial style, and intimate style.
Indah / 2015 Internet language features used by male and female
commenters in dagelan's account on Instagram
Focuses on
orthographic/graph ological features and lexical features to determine vocabulary of language used by both gender.
Qualitative method
- Finding of the study even male post longer than female, but female more expressive while commenting.
The first study was done by Nabilah (2019) from English Department Faculty of Arts and Humanities State Islamic University of Sunan Ampel Surabaya. In the analysis, the writer focused on seven aspects of the theory proposed by Coates that is distinguishing language features between men and women. In addition, the author analyzes the types of language features using Coates’s theory. She also identifies the use of certain languages in YouTube Vlog posts that are used by men and women. From her analysis, she revealed that there are only five features that are classified as male and female language features used by men and women in Youtube Vlogs. Hedges, compliments, commands and directs, questions, and swearing and taboo words. Meanwhile, other language features were not found,
such as question tags and minimal responses. In her conclusion, the total features show that women are dominant in the use of language features. The writer found 225 words that indicate features, while for men there are 210 words that indicate their language features. It shows that from the analysis that both genders slightly use that feature proposed by Coates.
The second study is conducted by Ibkar, (2018). The writer used theory from Lakoff 1975 to determine the characteristics of females written on social media.
The object analysis is from chat application Line with the group itself has 30 members aged around 17 to 22 years old with a similar number of participants.
The aim of the study is to explain the characteristics of both genders and identify the factors that push certain characteristics produced. This study concludes that males and females are slightly different in using the feature of speech characteristics and the writer argues that what has been mentioned by Lakoff as the parameters for based speech are no longer true for his particular study.
The third study was done by, Sood (2018) from Islamic University State Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang. The writer focuses or takes the data source for analysis data from Instagram captions, which represent the type of language style used by women's accounts with the most followers. It is intended to provide an understanding related to the style of language that women do in Instagram captions, and then the writer uses theories related to language style from a sociolinguistic perspective. This research provides readers with a good understanding of social media that represents gender identity in language style.
This analysis illustrates that there are seven Instagram posts along with captions that match the type and characteristics of language style. Based on the linguist or the theory used by the writer, he has classified the types of language styles that are found in almost every woman's account. The findings of his analysis, the writer prove that posts consist style on Instagram caption, which are formal style, informal style, colloquial style, casual style, and intimate style.
The last study was done by, Indah (2015) this thesis analysis, the writer examines use theory internet language features by Danet and Crystal, there are ten language features proposed by Danet, they are multiple punctuation, eccentric spelling, capital letters, asterisk, written out laughter, etc. according theory by Crystal Internet Language feature is a lexical feature used to determine the vocabulary used by male and female commentators, uses kinds of unique features, and shows that between both genders who is more expressive in commenting on comment section on Dagelan account Instagram. Because, different setting might influence how males and males communicate, especially in online conversation.
From her analysis, even males post longer comments, but female’s comments is more likely play with the language they use. In other words, it means that females are more expressive in giving comments.
In language terms, gender often makes a difference in communication. Due to psychological terms or other aspects, the verbal characteristics of males and females can be distinguished (Merchant, 2012). And then, by focusing on the previous study above, these previous studies become the guidance to write this
analysis with the same discussion, which is language and gender but different objects and theory. Many points are contrasted between those previous studies and this current study, but those studies give many contributions, important things, and information to this study. Like the first previous study by Nabilah’s analysis, she found slight differences style features used by male and female theory used by Coates (1986) and found out the purpose of using those certain features. Her study different with this current study, while this study using different theory. While, the second study uses the same theory as this study, analyzed by Ibkar he proved that female characteristics in social media are not the same as Lakoff said, he shows that those feature like hedges, politeness, and empty adjective similar with male language, meanwhile this current study aims prove that the language style characteristics by Lakoff is the character style that women are usually use. Then, the studies by Sood and Indah use different theory and finding with this current study meanwhile Sood focused get the data from the Instagram caption, meanwhile this current study uses Instagram from comments section to get the data, from that proof explanation the aim of present this study are to fill these gaps by analyzing the different styles of language used by males and females by using another theory proposed by Lakoff. Explain whether it is true that women do have a style of language like what Lakoff said, and prove whether there is a dominant style of language used between men and women. Also to find out online communication, there are still doubts whether the communication style with those features is real as in real-life.
From the results of this analysis, the writer can also conclude the phenomena and focus on writing expressions in the comment section, by both genders.
Because in communication, each person has a different style of expression in responding to a statement in any opinion, especially on social media, which is free to express their ideas. Writing is one of the language skills used to express ideas, opinions and feelings in the form of written language. (Aminatun, Ngadison &
Marmanto)The writer realizes that this study is still far from a good analysis because, for some reason, the timing is very limited, and the writer does the analysis by herself.
2.2 Sociolinguistic
Sociolinguistics is a study that explains why we speak differently in different social circles related contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the social function of language and the methods used to convey social messages meaning (Holmes, 2013, p. 1). In sociolinguistics, language and gender have a very close relationship because gender variance has emerged as a major field of sociolinguistic study and has focused on effects on human language use.
Sociolinguistics is the relationship between society and language. This can be interpreted by sociolinguistics sees language as a communication system in the social fields. Sociolinguistics also related to the general function of language, as a communication tool. Sociolinguistics is usually defined as a study of sociological aspects of language and studying the characteristics and variations of language and the relationship between the speakers and the characteristics of language variations in a language community. Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language variation, the function of language variation, and the use of language because these three elements interact with and change each other
in a society, the social identity of the speaker, the social environment in which events occur and the level of linguistic variation and variety.
2.3 Language and Gender
One of the scientific aspects discussed in sociolinguistic studies is language and gender. Gender can be interpreted as a concept used to identify differences between men and women that can be seen from various sides, ranging from values and behavior. In sociolinguistic studies, language and gender have a very close relationship, and this also applies to language style differences. In other hands, in a kind of interaction in communication women tend to use body language expression, an expression such as a phrase refers to how a woman usually writes her body language, through written language and text by using some characteristics of general communication on social media.
2.4 Women Language Feature
Lakoff 1975 in Holmes (2013, p.302) mentioned that women and men in the language have different styles, namely lexical hedges, precise color terms, tag question, empty adjective, rising intonation on declarative, intensifiers, hypercorrect grammar, polite forms, avoid of strong swear words and emphatic stress. (Aryangga & Nurmaily, 2017) explained that a stereotype in which women generally have to behave feminine rather than masculine.
2.4.1 Lexical Hedges
In sociolinguistic studies, hedges can be used to analyze topics related to gender.
Lexical hedges can be seen in the form of words, phrases, and information that is not completely accurate, uncertainty, doubt, and confusion.
Hedges can be used to hedge personal statements and soften the impact. For the example sentence “I think this is the best decision that I have ever made” is less direct compared to “This is the bestdecision that I have ever made”.Responses in conversations like this can be identified as gender characteristics according to theory from Lakoff. (Namasaraev, 1997, p.153) cited in (Rosanti & Jaelani, 2016 p.33) states "There are nine types of lexical hedges according to its classification".
The table below shows the language used in hedging according to their classification.
Modal auxiliary verb can, should, could, will, would, may, must, might,
Lexical verb suggest, estimate, think, argue, speculate, propose,
suppose appear, believe, assume, tend indicate, seem,
Probability adjective possible, likely, unlikely, clear, definite, certain, probable
Noun assumption, claim, probability
possibility, estimate, suggestion,
Adverb presumably, clearly, probably,
Practically, conversely, virtually apparently, completely, possibly,
perhaps, definitely, certainly, Adverb of frequency often, occasionally, generally, usually,
sometimes, normally, frequently, always, rarely, never, seldom,
“If” clause if true, if anything,
Compound hedges looks probable, may be suggested, seems reasonable,
Fillers You know, you see, by the way, sort of,
well, hmm, uhm, uhh, uh..huh, all I know, I mean, yeah, like, Table 2.2.1 nine type’s classification of lexical hedges
2.4.2 Tag Question
Tag question is a syntactic device that proposed by Lakoff as female language feature (Holmes, 2013. p. 306) A tag question is a question between a direct statement and a yes-no question. The sentence is more assertive and confident (Lakoff, 1975). Tag question is a polite statement that does not emphasize the listener or the idea of the hearer. Lakoff argues that women tent to use tag question to show insecurity and doubt In addition, it can also be used to give direct questions or can be used for criticism. Tag questions divide into two, positive-negative questions or negative-positive questions. For examples:
a. Are you from Indonesia? Isn’t it?
b. You aren’t coming, are you?
(Holmes 2013 p.307) proposed function of tag question by gender there are several function such as expressing uncertainty, facilitative, softening, confrontational.
2.4.3 Rising Intonation on Declarative
As stated by (Lakoff, 1975) the use of rising intonation indicates a very high desire and is very convincing in expressing opinions. Rising intonation is a kind of declarative sentence, but there is rising intonation at the end of the sentence.
Through this feature, the speaker emphasizes the idea as a wish if his opinion will
be approved by the hearer, so that the intonation rises. In declarative sentences, it is also used to show that the speaker leaves a free decision to the hearer in terms of what is said. For examples:
a. Is it true? Are you sure about what you said ?!
b. OMG.. is has already six o’clock??
2.4.4 Empty Adjective
The presence of empty adjectives in the female language is due to a sense of wanting to show an emotional connection that will be conveyed to the listener.
(Jespersen, 1922) as cited in Coates, 2004 p.12 women differ from men in extensive use certain adjectives, such as pretty and nice, and even more in use of adverbs. So, is also claimed as having "something" eternally feminine about it. In addition, it is also commonly used to show a feeling about something interesting (Lakoff, 1975). The sentence can be neutral men and women can use it while in several moments it is more widely used by women. The examples of the two types are as follows:
Table 1.4.4 Two types representative of empty adjective
Neutra Women Adjective
Nice Adorable
Good Divine
Cool Sweet
Great Lovely
Women can use neutral adjectives, while men less use feminine adjectives because they think that using adjectives used by women will damage them or embarrass them as considered masculine.
2.4.5 Special Vocabulary / Naming Colors
In terms of naming or mentioning colors. Women have a habit or can interpret colored names differently than men. Because women have more vocabulary than men when it comes to naming colors, the ability to pronounce color terms more clearly than men, such as maroon, beige, lavender, or tosca and many more. The vocabulary about these colors is often well identified by women. Meanwhile, men generally do not focus too much on naming colors and what women do because they do not involve their emotions, in contrast to women who always question the accuracy of colors (Lakoff, 1975). Arguing whether a particular color is lavender or lavender for men seems trivial.
2.4.6 Intensifiers
The intensifier can be used as a tool to increase anticipation in a speaker's sentence that the listener or reader can be sure of what the speaker says so that he uses the word intensifier to provide additional to convince the hearer/ the readers.
"Replacing an intensifier for the absolute superlative with using (like, very, really, absolute) with such an amp seems like a way out of a strong opinion" (Oktapiani, 2017, p.210).
Women usually increase their enthusiasm while speaking. When they do not use kind of intensifier that they will think that they will not be heard or noticed by the listener. That is why intensifier characterized as women’s language feature.
For examples:
I feel really enjoyed the show, that’s extremely good performance It can be seen from the example above. In the sentence, the use of the word
"really" works to emphasize the meaning of enjoyment. And the use of
"extremely" in the utterance has an extra pleasure in the feeling. Then, help the utterance to wish that he was completely crazy about the show.
2.4.7 Hypercorrect
Women are more often use standard grammatical in conversation than men not only direct or indirect way, such as the example of (Lakoff, 1975) where women may use the g' ending in the words goin', singin', talkin', etc, than men.
Women use standard forms of grammar of conversation more than men. This could be because women generally do not have status in society, that women more organize and follow the rules In this way, but also, the standard form of speech spoken by women uses high social status so that women use more standard speech as a way to claim that status. Women according to Lakoff (1975) are not used to using slang in everyday life, while men usually often of using slang language, and use shorten sentence, while communicate with other person.
2.4.8 Speak More Politely
Female language also characterized as more polite than men while speaking and more often seen that women use very polite sentence forms rather than men in online media. This is related to the fact that women prefer to say polite sentences to their listeners or readers are more careful in saying sentences of help or
information. Women use the super polite form in their daily conversation not only in real life but online communication as the writer said in some ways, for example, women are less assertive words, and seem like indirect requests, euphemisms, and grammatical hypercorrections. Women's speeches differ from men's in that women are more polite, which they should be because women sometimes maintain morality and decency, (Lakoff, 1975). (Brown and Levinson (1987) cited in Maros & Rosli 2017 p.138 suggested four politeness strategies which are bald-on record, positive politeness, negative politeness and off-record politeness strategy.
For example
a. If I’m not mistaken (Positive) b. I'm sorry to hear that (Negative)
c. Could you bring my book today, if you don’t mind? (Negative)
2.4.9 Avoidance Strong Swear Words / Taboo
Swear words are a type of interjection that can express emotional intensity emotions. This swearing is widely regarded as an expression of very strong emotions. Women more often use softer words like Oh, Dear! or omg! while men use harsher words like Damn! Or Shit!
(Lakoff, 1975) states about how a girl should be gentler in her daily speech. As a little girl don't scream as loud as a boy. The use of swear words is identical to a certain type of person or can be related to the character of the person who uses it.
Swear words also represent the feelings and emotions of the speaker. According to (Eckert, 2003, p.181), strong swear words is a kind of interjection or
interjection for expressing anger in extreme proportions and are considered a powerful expression.
2.4.10 Emphatic Stress
Based on the theory proposed by ( Lakoff, 1975) she defines that someone that uses empathic stress is a form of reaction to something because what the speaker said is less promising, so it is better to use double power for the statement conveyed by the speaker. Pebrianti ( 2013, p. 112) “To emphasize opinions in writting text, women can type in italics, bold, colored, repetitive, capitalized, or long letters to emphasize or reinforce these words” So, the listener can understand what the speaker is saying. Example:
A. This is the great movie that I have ever watch!
B. What a beautiful hoodie!
Great words in a sentence and the actual sentence b are some examples of empathic stress. In CMC these words can be used to reinforce the meaning of the words. These markers include (a punctuation mark, question mark, full stops dots, capitalization, additional letters, emoticons (Parkins, 2012) to emphasis stress on writting language.
2.5 Men Language
Lakoff states that many things can make the characteristics of a person's style of the way they use language, but regarding things such as the style of language used by males, it can be described that usually, male's language is more assertive, mature, and precise or a direct target form. The writer finds that there are no clues that explain the characteristics of male speech as expressed by Lakoff's female speech characteristics. On the other hand, several studies and theories reveal male
characteristics, such as another theory that discusses the linguistic differences between women's and men's language, Coates (2004). Coates revealed that the language features used by men are a minimal response to commands and directions, swearing and taboo language, praise, themes, and questions.
2.6 General Characteristics of Online Communication
Sending messages through chat applications, replying and writing comments and messages on online forums and making friends on social media are simple examples of CMC. According to (Androutsopoulus, 2014) analysis of participant comments which are in form of the text in social media are part of CMC. “The linguistic features that indicate gender through computer-mediated communication are those that have previously described face-to-face interactions and include redundancy, Assertiveness, use of blasphemous expressions, politeness (and rudeness), typed depictions of smiles, levels of laughter and interactive involvement” Coates, 1993 cited in (Herring, 2003, p.6) one of the things that can currently being built is communication technology via smart phone, pc, etc. (Sari & Putri, 2019) smartphone used for many things, such as sending messages via instant messaging, upload and download images and audio via social media, and others. There are 6 emotional signs to express emotions through CMC. “These markers are punctuation marks in the form of exclamation marks, or question mark full stop dots, capitalization, additional letter, emoticons”
(Parkins, 2012, p.46-54). In the study of linguistics, CMC is one of the fields of study in sociolinguistics because it provides new academic data for sociolinguistics by studying and analyzing linguistic variability among social identities on the Internet (Androutsopoulos, 2014)
