The frame as definition The view of the lens color and light visual texture movement Establishing point-of-view-detective POV. Horizontal, vertical and diagonals The power of the edge: The frame open and closed frame.
HD, HD+ AND UHD
What to Slate When to Change Font The European System of Slating VFX Takes, Series and Replays. At the same time, most traditional skills are still critical to success in the camera department.
WRITING WITH MOTION
BUILDING A VISUAL WORLD
This is the essence of visual storytelling: to convey meaning to the viewer in ways other than words—to add layers of meaning in addition to the dialogue and action. What are the tools of cinematography and filmmaking—the essential techniques, methods, and elements we can use to tell our story visually.
THE VISUAL LANGUAGE OF CINEMATOGRAPHY
THE FRAME AS DEFINITION
In unconventional framing, most of the frame is sky: negative space, we barely see the beach. In this scene from The Verdict (Figures 1.8 and 1.9), the whole story is at a climax: the trial has reached its end, the lawyer's (Paul Newman) entire case has been thrown out, witnesses disqualified, evidence excluded.
THE VIEW OF THE LENS
The extremely long lens compresses the space and makes the transmission towers appear to be standing on top of each other: the visual metaphor it establishes is a spider's web, a trap. Here, an ultra-wide lens expands our perception of space and distorts the face—an effect that is both comical and ominous.
COLOR AND LIGHT
A frame from Angel Heart that is an unbalanced frame, both horizontally and vertically, lends an air of tension and creates a feeling that things are out of whack in the world.
VISUAL TEXTURE
None of them proved satisfactory, and eventually he turned to what was then a completely new process: the digital intermediate (DI) - the original images are shot on film and will ultimately be projected onto movies in cinemas. Most visible in this frame are the shadowy lighting, contrasty look, and green/cyan shift of the entire image, all of which reinforce the eerie, surreal imagery of the content.
MOVEMENT
A number of similar techniques are used in this music video Come to Daddy by English music video director Chris Cunningham (Figure 1.15) for Aphex Twin. By the end of the film, she has transformed into a strong, independent woman who stands proud and tall, similar to the Statue of Liberty.
ESTABLISHING
POINT-OF-VIEW
This opening scene of Working Girl is not only a dynamic helicopter shot, it is also a powerful visual metaphor that introduces us to two main characters, establishes the tone and some key ideas of the film, some of the backstory, and even a hint at some of the aspirations and destiny of the main character. The first shot is an over-the-shoulder shot that establishes the scene and the relationship between the two cars. middle).
DETECTIVE POV
We see the detective watching; this establishes that what we see next will be his point of view. bottom). For example, a large number of shots in Chinatown are over the shoulders of Jake Gittes.
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
This frame from Rosemary's Baby demonstrates the power of framing and camera positioning as part of the overall composition. This shot from the finale of The Big Combo is not only graphically strong in composition, but many visual elements work together to reinforce and add subtext to the story content of the scene.
MORE THAN JUST A PICTURE
The symmetrical balance created by the shadows and light on the floor is in visual tension with the off-center figure in the frame; The Man Who Wasn't There. below) The rhythm of repeated elements is an important component of this shot of Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind. The language of film is further and further away from the language of the theater and is closer to music.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
UNITY
BALANCE
VISUAL TENSION
RHYTHM
PROPORTION
The Golden Mean is just one way of looking at proportion and size relationships in general. The outer rectangle defined by the Golden Mean is very close to 1.78:1, a widely used standard HD frame ratio.
CONTRAST
Classical Greek philosophy expressed the idea that mathematics is the controlling force of the universe and that this is expressed in visual forces as the Golden Mean.
TEXTURE
DIRECTIONALITY
THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL FIELD
DEPTH
OVERLAP
RELATIVE SIZE
VERTICAL LOCATION
LEFT/RIGHT
Kubrick uses linear perspective to convey a sense of the rigid military and social structure in Paths of Glory. Chiaroscuro lighting uses light and shadow to create depth and focus the audience's attention, such as this frame from Apocalypse Now.
LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
CHIAROSCURO
Since dealing with lighting is one of our main tasks, this is an important consideration in our work. See also Figure 4.1 at the beginning of the chapter Visual storytelling: a masterpiece by the painter Caravaggio, one of the great old masters of the use of chiaroscuro.
ATMOSPHERIC PERSPECTIVE
All these basic elements can then be deployed in various combinations to create a hierarchy of perception: they can create an organization of the visual field that makes the composition coherent and guides the eye and the brain as it merges the information.
THE LINE
THE SINUOUS LINE
COMPOSITIONAL TRIANGLES
HORIZONTALS, VERTICALS, AND DIAGONALS
It is important to remember that a viewer does not. see” an entire frame at a time, the eye moves continuously as it “reads” the shot; our job is to guide that journey. Visual elements that assist the eye/brain combination in organizing the scene include:. or implied in the arrangement of objects and spaces.
THE POWER OF THE EDGE: THE FRAME
It has changed throughout the history of film, generally from a nearly square shape (Figure 2.10) to a wider, more horizontal rectangle (Figure 2.17) to an extremely wide frame as in this frame from JFK (Figure 2.21). A full range of light and dark, bold colors and converging lines of perspective are compositional elements in this frame from Kiss, Kiss, Bang, Bang.
OPEN AND CLOSED FRAME
FRAME WITHIN A FRAME
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED FRAME
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SPACE
MOVEMENT IN THE VISUAL FIELD
THE RULE OF THIRDS
RULES OF COMPOSITION FOR PEOPLE
HEADROOM
NOSEROOM
OTHER GUIDELINES
The language of the lens includes how the lens mediates and interprets the physical world for us; how it "renders" the image in various ways that can be used for effective visual storytelling. In this discussion, that also includes the placement of the lens, which is an important decision in framing any image—the placement works with the optical properties of the lens to create the overall effect.
THE LENS AND THE FRAME
LENS PERSPECTIVE
The first decision is always where the camera goes in relation to the subject, but this is only half the battle. A normal lens is defined as a lens where the focal length is equal to the diagonal of the receptor (the film frame or video sensor).
WIDE LENSES AND EXPANSION OF SPACE
Another aspect of wide-angle lenses is that at a given distance and f/stop they have greater depth of field. We will get into the details in later chapters, but perceptual ramifications are very much part of the psychology of the lens.
DEEP FOCUS
Throughout the film, we see action in the background that complements and enhances what we see in the foreground. Later, Welles uses the exaggerated distances of the wide-angle lenses to separate Kane from other characters in the scene, thus emphasizing his alienation.
COMPRESSION OF SPACE
The enormous fish and the rippling, motivated lighting of the water all work together to suggest that the character is “in over his head and out of his depth.” If you were to show a slow-motion shot with a long lens of someone running to someone who has never seen a movie or video before, they might not understand that that person is running fast at all.
MANIPULATING PERSPECTIVE
She asks him to meet her in a remote public place: the aquarium. Conscious lens flare is an essential part of the appearance of this scene from 9 1/2 weeks.
SELECTIVE FOCUS
Until the sixties, it was the established orthodoxy that virtually everything important in the frame should be in focus. There is more discussion of the other factors that affect focus and depth of field in the Optics & Focus chapter, later in this book.
FILTRATION
Evaluation; in this chapter we only deal with changing the image quality with the lens and the shutter as they are relevant to this discussion of visual storytelling with the lens. In this shot, the height and angle of the lens make a clear statement about the character's state of mind in Dr.
LENS HEIGHT
HIGH ANGLE
Dutch inflection is often used to visually express the feeling that there is something strange, off, or disorienting about a story.
LOW ANGLE
Obviously a very low angle can be seen from a dog's perspective, especially if it is cut right after a shot of the dog and the very low angle then moves somewhat erratically and in a dog manner. Whenever the actor being viewed is threatening or frightening to the character we associate the POV with, a low angle is often appropriate.
DUTCH TILT
The great film The Third Man is known for using Dutch tilt to suggest that many of the characters are not 'on the same level'. The transition from black and white to color in the film Memento is a visual metaphor for the transition from the past (black and white) to the present (color). top).
VISUAL METAPHOR
TELLING STORIES WITH PICTURES
A characteristic example of a simple but haunting use of the visual metaphor of light in storytelling from The Exorcist. Here the strong ray of sunlight is the hand of God reaching into the dark tavern to pluck Matthew out of the darkness.
LIGHTING AS STORYTELLING
FILM NOIR
Noir was the birth of the protagonist who is not so clearly defined as purely good or evil. This reflects the confusion and sense of lost ideals which returned with the war's veterans and survivors.
LIGHT AS VISUAL METAPHOR
The only source of light is the train's relatively small windows, and while they let in plenty of light, it's low-angled and somewhat shadowy and ominous. This clearing of the entrapment between them establishes a mood and tone of uncertainty and conflict between two worlds that carries through the rest of the film.
LIGHT AND SHADOW / GOOD AND EVIL
They quickly become the paparazzi's flashbulbs as he paints the town red with his glamorous girlfriend Memo. down, down). Roy seems to sense her presence, but as he turns to look for her, he is blinded by the flashes of the photographers.
FADING FLASHBULBS
As Roy connects powerfully with the ball, he is framed so that the lights of the field. representing the ennobling power of baseball) is in the shot with him. left, bottom) Roy's home run hits the lights of the field; one shatters, shorting them all out, and they explode in a shower of fireworks. They are enveloped in an omnipresent glow of the power of good triumphing over evil—one of the most haunting images in modern cinema.
VISUAL POETRY
Filmmakers who take a dismissive attitude towards lighting are depriving themselves of one of the most important, subtle and powerful tools of visual storytelling. The key shot from Kubrick's The Shining gives information about the location, the grounds and the layout of the hotel, as well as a vague sense of foreboding.
WHAT IS CINEMATIC?
A QUESTION OF PERCEPTION
In this chapter we will primarily deal with the framework and another essential tool: editing. Kubrick often uses a static frame to convey basic ideas about the social structure of the situation, as in this shot from Barry Lyndon.
VISUAL SUBTEXT AND VISUAL METAPHOR
While editing is not the job of the cinematographer, it is critical to understand that the job of the DP and director working on set is to provide the editor with footage that he or she can use creatively and effectively.
THE FRAME
The first of these decisions is where to place the camera in relation to the scene. Then there are choices regarding field of view and movement, all of which work together to influence how viewers will perceive the shot: both in direct content and in emotional undercurrent and subtext to the action and dialogue.
STATIC FRAME
THE SHOTS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF A SCENE
An important function of shot selection is to decide what you want the audience to pay attention to; what you want them to focus on or take in mentally. An essential part of choosing the photo you want is what you want the frame to be: what you want to include, but also what you don't want them to see.
WIDE SHOT
To emphasize the inevitability of Lawrence's fate, all movement in the film is from left to right.
ESTABLISHING SHOTS
ESTABLISHING THE GEOGRAPHY
Many filmmakers find it more effective if the opening shot can be combined with a piece of the story. The same information has been conveyed, but we have also told part of the story.
CHARACTER SHOTS
FULL SHOT
TWO SHOT
MEDIUM SHOT
CLOSE-UPS
This ECU (extreme close-up) from Psycho not only shows us his intent gaze, but also manages to convey the character's insanity. Not much over the shoulder as there are out of focus elements in the foreground and very little of the person in the foreground.
OVER-THE-SHOULDER
CUTAWAYS
REACTION SHOTS
Silent films were the pinnacle of reaction shots, because they understood that you get the full emotional content of the scene when you see the listener's facial and body language reactions. Reaction photos may not seem important when you're shooting the scene, but they're invaluable when editing.
INSERTS
The shot of the cat isn't really part of the scene, but it adds mood and tone to the scene.
CONNECTING SHOTS
This scene from Skyfall features Bond and a villain on top of a train and Moneypenny on a nearby hilltop – the first three frames above are also called separation – separate parts of a scene, such as a close-up or medium shot that shows only one side seeing the action. Combining the close-up of Moneypenny with her optical POV of the men on the train would allow the scene to play nicely. There is no need to have her and the actors on the train in the same location or even in the same country during filming, the audience will. accept it.
PICKUPS
Shooting a connecting shot really ties the scene together and makes it more real and effective than just using separate shots. This is one or more days of shooting after the film is already in editing.
TRANSITIONAL SHOTS
INVISIBLE TECHNIQUE
THE SHOOTING METHODS
THE MASTER SCENE METHOD
COVERAGE
It ensures the continuity of the scene: everything you shoot afterwards must match what was captured in the master. Shoot all shots on one side before moving to the other side of the scene.
OVERLAPPING OR TRIPLE-TAKE METHOD
Here's what will work much better: you get a wide view of it walking in and let it run until you put notes on the lectern. Again you stop to set another angle and have the actor turn from it.
IN-ONE
Giving the editor some extra overlap at the beginning or end of each frame will prevent many potential problems when editing the scene. A word of warning, though: When these images work, they can be magnificent, but if they don't work—if you, for example, discover in editing that the scene drags out far too slowly – your options are limited.
FREEFORM METHOD
Of all the methods of shooting a scene, by far the simplest is the i-one, sometimes called an oner or a developing master, or the French term plan-scene or plan-sequence. All of these together will give you a scene you can cut together without any problems, and give the editor plenty of flexibility to cut the scene in different ways and tighten up parts that seem to drag.
MONTAGE
INVOLVING THE AUDIENCE: POV
The camera is essentially part of the scene, as it sees the people, but it is not involved in the scene in any way. Consequently, we can never see the detective, because the camera is the detective—the lens becomes his eyes.
THE FOURTH WALL AND POV
This master establishes the group in the background and that the man with the mustache is looking to the left of the camera in this scene from Noon. To take it the next step, it would also be possible to take the player (or even the booth) to another location and get an over-the-shoulder view of the city.
CONTINUITY
SHOOTING FOR EDITING
THINKING ABOUT CONTINUITY
Although continuity is primarily the job of the director and script supervisor, it is very important that the director of photography has a thorough understanding of the principles of continuity and how to ensure that the footage is 'cuttable', meaning that's the material the editor can use to put together the best possible scenes. This particular example is the type that the audience will almost never notice, but this isn't to say that continuity isn't important, just that you can get away with a few minor mistakes.
TYPES OF CONTINUITY
CONTINUITY OF CONTENT
Understandably, directors tend to be much more concerned with the performance and the development of the scene than they are with the actor's head and hand movements. This is one reason why it is always a good idea to do more than one take of a shot that is part of the coverage of a scene.
CONTINUITY OF MOVEMENT
This is also one of the reasons why we shoot the coverage (mediums, close-ups, etc.) from the beginning to the end of the scene on every shoot. He looks up and to the left and the clock is on the wall pointing to the right.
CONTINUITY OF POSITION
With the camera on the left/right as in Figure 5.36, we see him on the left side of the screen and her on the right side. The characters stay where they are, but the camera moves to the other side of the line.
CONTINUITY OF TIME
Once established in the scene (usually by the master shot), it must be maintained for all shots in the scene—. If the close shot of Sam South was for one second, Dave North cannot have gone fifty yards when he cut back to the wide shot.
THE PRIME DIRECTIVE
SCREEN DIRECTION
If both of them see the car from the same side of its directional motion, they will both see it moving in the same direction. This is the basic principle of screen direction—if we cross to the other side of the action line, it will reverse the screen direction.
THE ACTION AXIS
As long as you stay on the same side of the line, any camera position, any framing, any lens height, any focal length will be fine depending on the orientation of the screen.
THESE ARE THE RULES—BUT WHY?
WHAT ESTABLISHES THE LINE?
THE PURPOSE OF SCREEN DIRECTION
DIRECTIONAL CONVENTIONS
EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE
At the front of the room is the bench, a large identifiable object with the judge sitting by it. This frame is a fairly common use of the reverse image - to show what it is the actors are looking at.
REVERSE
TURNAROUND
In any of these cases, it is possible to move the camera and lights just a little and just move the actors. Fortunately, moving the foreground actor usually just involves the key just a bit to make sure it's on the right side of the face.).
PLANNING COVERAGE
In cases where a physical obstacle gets in the way of a good camera position for the turnaround, or if the sun is at a bad angle, or there is no time to relight for the turnaround, it is possible to cheat. To ensure cutability, it is best to combine the 30° movement with another change, such as a different focal length.
CUTTABILITY
THE 20% AND 30 DEGREE RULES
OTHER ISSUES OF CONTINUITY
MOVING SHOTS
GOING THROUGH A DOOR
Others claim that when someone walks through a door, it's a new deal and anything goes. If there is a very clear connection between the two, and the directionality and continuity of movement is very strong, then it is a good idea to maintain directional continuity between the two.
ENTERING AND EXITING FRAME
If there is a large difference between interior and exterior, and there is a major change in angle, camera position, or lens size between the two, it is possible to go to the other side when the character comes through the other side of the door (Figure 5.52 and 5.53). Similarly, when a character takes a walk around a building, if the camera cuts, when the character disappears around the corner, when we pick him up on the other side, the screen orientation must be preserved.
NEUTRAL AXIS TO EXIT FRAME
Some will say that if a character goes through a door going right (in an exterior shot), they should come out the other side, also going right (in an interior shot). A neutral axis resets the direction of the screen; once you go to a neutral axis shot of any kind, you are free to return to the scene with a new screen direction set for the scene.
THREE SHOTS
This can be used as an editorial device and also as a way to save the scene during editing, just as you would with a cutaway.
KEEP THE NOSE OUT
PROP CONTINUITY IN COVERAGE
Prop continuity mistakes are easy to make, especially on small productions where you may not have a full prop crew on set or you may not have an experienced continuity supervisor. It is important to remain vigilant even on the smallest details, as poor continuity is something that will mark your project.
EYE SWEEPS
CHASE SCENES
CUTAWAY EYELINE CONTINUITY
Sometimes script supervisors can become so obsessed with small details, which won't really be obvious to the audience, that they can start to get in the way of the production.
EYELINES IN OVER-THE-SHOULDER COVERAGE
EYELINES FOR A SEATED CHARACTER
Since the over-the-shoulder shot of the standing character can be an extreme angle, it also works to keep the camera at eye level of the seated performer, which makes it a sort of last shot. In situations like this, for pure singles, when there is a difference in height or level of the characters on the cover, even the eye lines may need some adjustment.
OTS AND INSERTS
This does not apply to the over-shoulders, as we can see the offscreen artist's head and thus know the actual eye level. table to get shot, the chest of drawers will often have something smaller that can stand for it. This shot is from the POV of the man in the suit, but we don't see any of him in the foreground.
MOVING ACTION
In this case we are said to be "inside" him - not inside his body, but within his field of vision.
GROUP SHOTS
INTRODUCTIONS
While a shot is generally an exterior view of the building, establishing geography relates to the scene itself. In many scenes it is also important that they have a general understanding of the layout of the place – the general geography.
THE TIME
To match, they must be opposite: she is looking to the left of the frame, and he is looking to the right of the frame.
THE CHARACTERS
OTHER EDITORIAL ISSUES IN SHOOTING
JUMP CUTS
The next three establish his eye line to Miss Body, so in the bottom frame we can see that he is indeed looking at her as he speaks to the seated Stewart.
THE SIX TYPES OF CUTS
THE CONTENT CUT
THE ACTION CUT
Take the example of answering the phone: in the middle shot, the phone rings, he picks it up and starts talking. In this case, it is critical that his head is in the same position and he holds the phone in the same way.
THE POV CUT
If it's after a shot from the bell tower, he should clearly look up. The shot of the bell tower should have a logical connection to where the viewer is.
EXECUTING A SUBJECTIVE POV
The third is the actual POV itself, their perspective on the thing they are looking at (Figure 5.71). To top it off, many editors also use the view of the character turning their head back to the position they were in before the POV, but this is not absolutely essential.
THE MATCH CUT
This part of the setup is essential to let the audience know that the next shot will be the character's POV. In general, this should be a somewhat normal lens, because an extremely long lens or very wide lens would not represent normal human vision and would not look like one's perspective.
THE ZERO CUT
Secondary cyan and yellow are mixtures of primaries on either side of the spectrum, while magenta is a mixture of red and blue, which are at opposite ends of the spectrum. While we'll delve into the science and technology of color, it's important to never lose sight of the fact that it's all about human perception - the eye/brain combination and how it interprets incoming light waves underpins everything we do in the field.
COLOR TERMINOLOGY
COLOR TEMPERATURE: THE BALANCES
It's not sunlight that tends to be warmer because of Earth's yellow sun; it's not skylights, which are very blue, it's a combination of the two. If you heat a black body radiator (such as a piece of metal) to 3200K, it will be the same orange color as the bulbs we use for film production; in other words, the Kelvin scale is a sort of common use of the terms "incandescence".
WARM AND COOL
Same chart with color balance skewed towards blue - vectorscope trace pulled towards blue. Grayscale with a neutral color balance - the vectorscope shows a small dot exactly in the middle, which means there is no color at all - zero saturation.
WHITE BALANCE, BLACK BALANCE, AND BLACK
In this example, the camera "sees" the scene as lit with blue/green (cyan) lighting, which may be typical of some types of daylight fluorescent tubes. This is why it's important to use a truly neutral white or photo grayscale as the target when white balancing - you want the camera to only analyze the color of the lighting of the scene, not the color of objects within the scene .
SHADING
