JSNT Journal for Study of the New Testament JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. SHBC Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament SJT Scottish Journal of Theology.
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
Taken at face value, both the Old Testament (OT) and the New Testament (NT) seem to contain passages that depict God deliberately influencing individuals and groups toward evil behavior, for which said individuals are subsequently punished. Examples from the Old Testament include accounts such as the hardening of Pharaoh's heart in Exodus, YHWH's enticing of King Ahab in 1 Kings 22:19-23, and the divine command given to David to take an apparently sinful census in 2 Samuel 24, 1 But perhaps even more well-known than these is the example given in the ninth chapter of Paul's Epistle to the Romans, where the apostle seems to imply that some persons are predestined by God to refuse to believe in Christ and to be eternally condemned for their sinner.
Need for the Study
On the contrary, the Christian canon contains many examples in which God's negative influence is stated without any reference to eternal damnation. On the one hand, rejectionists "flatten" Scripture when they read every DRA text as if it speaks of eternal damnation.
Aims and Thesis
First, what methods will be used to determine which texts to include in the scope of the project. And secondly, given the debates surrounding the field of BT, what does it mean for a study to attempt to be biblical-theological.
Scope of the Project
These criteria would serve, for example, to exclude those texts which speak of God's sovereignty over human sins without reference to condemnation.9 Such passages may meet the first two criteria by describing God's oversight of human sins, but they do not to the third criteria since they do not claim that God's influence was intended to lead to. While lexical studies have their value, a word study approach would be inappropriate for the purposes of this project since there is no reason to believe that the biblical writers used a limited set of terms to refer to God's disapproving influence.
Biblical-Theological Method
Testament Biblical Theology: The Unfolding of the Old Testament in the New (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2011), 9. Essays on the Use of the Old Testament in the New (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994); Richard N.
BT as a bridge discipline. From its inception, BT has been defined in part by
95 Many complaints about the "bridge-discipline" model stem from the argument that it inaccurately describes the ST as separate from Scripture. 97 In addition to the already mentioned critics of the "bridge-discipline" model, there are some who argue that BT cannot be an intermediate discipline, since biblical materials cannot be assumed to be relevant to modern theology.
HISTORY OF RESEARCH
Divine Hardening
See Jonathan Grossman, "The Structural Paradigm of the Ten Plagues Narrative and the Hardening of Pharaoh's Heart." Beale, "An Exegetical and Theological Consideration of the Hardening of Pharaoh's Heart in Exodus 4-14 and Romans 9," TJ 5, no.
Predestination
More can be said about the state of science in the field of divine hardening. First, none of the great studies of divine hardening can be equated with a canonical review of DRA.
Premodern Era
Affirmative rebuke on the other hand referred to God's will to curse or punish certain individuals for their sins. Moreover, the articles explicitly claim that God's predestination is not based on anticipated merit, but on God's pleasure. God's providence for the initiation of sin consists of (1) hindrance, (2) permission, (3) arrangement of occasions and inducements, and (4) conformity.
Modern Era
He says that “for the unrighteous 'Sons of Darkness' there seems something very like 'double predestination'; i.e., that the wicked are predestinated to destruction, as the righteous are to salvation.”222 Although he may come close, Merrill believes that the Hodayot ultimately do not teach an eternal, non-vengeful DRA. Matthew Levering disagrees, arguing that Paul and the Bible as a whole teach two truths related to predestination: “God's eternal love for each and every one. In the following chapters, I will argue that the Bible actually confirms this absolute form of the DRA.
Election
For his review, see Robert Shank, Elect in the Son: A Study of the Doctrine of Election (Springfield, MO: Westcott. Lohr, Chosen and Unchosen: Conceptions of Election in the Pentateuch and Jewish-Christian Interpretation, Siphrut 2 (Winona Lake , IN: Eisenbrauns Consistent with the arguments of others, I hope to prove the presence of non-retributive, eternal DRA in the biblical testimony as part of my demonstration that DRA is the subject of various presentations within the canon.
Divine and Human Agency
Wallace reads Romans 9 to emphasize God's merciful character and his desire for the humility of Israel and the nations.300 He argues that Jacob's election was an expression of mercy to both of Rebekah's sons, calling both to humility. Nevertheless, this brief summary of recent scholarship highlights some of the main outlines of the Romans 9 debate as it relates to the DRA. Although they have this point in common, they differ greatly in their reconstructions of the exact meaning of Romans 9:14-23.
Summary
While each has their strengths, I am convinced that these interpreters fail to account for Paul's argument and misinterpret the apostle's testimony about the DRA. In doing so, I will present further evidence that the biblical testimony to the DRA is multifaceted.
85 CHAPTER 3
DIVINE REPROBATING ACTIVITY IN THE TORAH
DRA in Exodus
Why must the divine perspective be unimportant to understanding the interplay between divine hardening and Pharaoh's actions? My own suggestion, on the other hand, is that the narrator used the phrase so that he might refer to initiating divine intervention without denying Pharaoh's own responsibility for his heart. In addition to the two narrative features already mentioned, the function of the summary statement in Exodus 11:10 likewise emphasizes that Pharaoh's disobedience depended on divine hardening.
Because the text never mentions retribution as a motivation for hardening, and because the story seems to emphasize the pharaoh's unforeseen influence over YHWH, on balance it may be best to conclude that the DRA in the exodus story is not retributive. Finally, Exodus 14:1-9 indicates that God's hardening activity caused Pharaoh to change his mind, which may indicate that God did more than just reinforce Pharaoh's self-determined inclinations. Third, the DRA described here seems to imply non-eternal condemnation.66 The text gives little reason to believe that the author intended to comment on the pharaoh's eternal destiny.
DRA in Deuteronomy
At the same time, Deuteronomy emphasizes that Israel's unfaithfulness is truly despicable (Deut. and that God will hold the nation accountable for them. Instead, he argues that Deut. 8:2–5 shows that Israel's moral formation takes place through God's disciplinary actions, and that Deut 29 testifies to the same reality.108 Von Rad notes that the prophets also depict the attacks of Israel's enemies as acts of divine judgment against God's own people.
Observations on DRA in the Torah
On the other hand, because the text provides no evidence that the condemnation in mind is one that extends beyond death, God's influence should probably be viewed as a non-eternal form of DRA. Although there is a case of DRA being underdetermined, that is, God's influence over the instruments of his wrath (Deut 28:49), even this is open to a non-retributive reading. And regarding the latter, there are no indications within the Torah that the objects of DRA face anything more than mortal death.
DIVINE REPROBATING ACTIVITY IN THE FORMER PROPHETS
DRA in the Book of Joshua
Tunyogi argues that the extermination of the Canaanites is a theme that unites Deuteronomy with Josh 1-11. Finally (and perhaps most importantly) a retribution perspective does not explain the case of the Gibeonites. As such, 2 Sam 21 gives no indication that YHWH approved of the character of the Gibeonites or their worship.
DRA in the Book of Judges
46 To explain the use of the form yiqtol, most scholars seem to argue that the MT is corrupt. Furthermore, the Israelites' response in 2:4 makes sense if in fact 2:3 refers to God's punitive decision. While one might argue that the condition of disobedience is presupposed, it seems simpler to understand 2:3 as describing God's response to Israel's actions in 2:2 rather than as an account of the previous speech.
God now refuses to expel the Canaanites from the land which inevitably brings about two results. First, the remaining Canaanites will become a source of pain to the
In the ninth chapter of the book, readers are told that Abimelech and the people of Shechem conspired against Gideon's sons so that Abimelech could become king (Judges 9:1-3). 58 Hamori rightly describes the relationship between the sending of the evil spirit and the treachery of the Shechemites as a clear case of cause and effect. However, Bluedorn's reading of the text seems unjustified, as the narrator gives every indication that YHWH judged Abimelech and the Shechemites for their conspiracy against the sons of Gideon (cf. Judg.
DRA in the Book of Samuel
Steussy interprets the apparent disagreement as evidence that the God of the Book of Samuel is problematic. Second, Brueggemann's deistic reading runs counter to the many references to God's personal actions. For a less optimistic view of the consistency and rationality of God's anger in the OT, see Kaminsky, Corporate Responsibility, 55-66.
DRA in the Book of Kings
However, before the war began, King Jehoshaphat demanded that Ahab first seek the word of God (1 Kings 22:5). Some commentators argue that the unanimity of the prophets seemed doubtful (see for example Wiseman, 1 and 2 Kings, 198; Leithart, 1 and 2 Kings, 160). 144 Although only Elijah's prophecy is explicitly referred to (cf. 1 Kings 22:38), it seems clear that the narrator intends Ahab's death to be read as the fulfillment of the prophecy in 1 Kings 20:42 as well.
Observations on DRA in the Former Prophets
Second, to a greater degree than the Pentateuch, the earlier prophets show various manifestations of the DRA. Third, without being as explicit as the Pentateuch, the earlier prophets also reveal God's character through their descriptions of the DRA. At the same time, the earlier prophets can depict the DRA as an expression of God's grace and faithfulness.
DIVINE REPROBATING ACTIVITY IN THE LATTER PROPHETS
DRA in the Book of Isaiah
DRA against Israel
In Isa 6, Isaiah ben Amoz describes a vision he received during the year of King Uzziah’s death 6 : “I saw the Lord sitting upon a throne [which was] high and
However, each of these proposals stumbles over the actual content of the chapter, and especially Isaiah 6:9–10. Gentry, “The Literary Macrostructures of the Book of Isaiah and Authorial Intent,” in Bind Up the Testimony: Explorations in the Genesis of the Book of Isaiah, ed. Evans suggests that the subject of the verb אפר is "people" (Evans, To See and Not Perceive, 19).
Other passages in Isaiah. While Isaiah 6 is perhaps the most famous Isaianic text dealing with DRA, there are other passages in the book that also describe God
Uhlig claims a connection in Isa 8:14–16 between God's role as a "mouthpiece," the prophet's work to seal testimony, and divine hardening. Furthermore, Uhlig plausibly asserts that "the sealing of the prophetic declaration (Isa 8:16) is the realization of the 'stumbling block' of Is 8:14. 63 The nature of "binding" and "sealing" in Is 8:16 has been the subject of some debate.
