influencing Israel towards their destruction. Within Isaiah 1–39, both 8:14–17 and 29:9–
14 seem to refer to reprobating activity against Israel.
61In both passages, God is
56 Many scholars argue that God hardened Israel only after they had already hardened
themselves (see for example Hayes, “Spirit of Deep Sleep,” 44; Roberts, First Isaiah, 102; Smith, Isaiah 1–
39, 185–86; House, “Isaiah’s Call,” 221; Kaiser, Isaiah 1–12, 131–32). While this interpretation maintains a form of retributive DRA, it also comes close to emptying God’s punitive act of any significance. After all, what exactly is the point of God hardening those who are already self-hardened? The claim that YHWH only hardens the (self-) hardened differs little from the notion that divine hardening is another way of speaking about self-hardening. Thus, I believe Child’s critique of the latter theory also pertains to the former: “The mystery of divine hardening cannot be explained by shifting the initiative to Israel, as if hardening were only an idiom describing how Israel hardened its own heart by disobedience. It is constitutive of biblical hardening that the initiative is placed securely with God in the mystery of his inscrutable will.” Childs, Isaiah, 56. See also von Rad, Prophetic Traditions, 152–53.
57 Although I would not deny God’s supernatural work in the hardening, Chisholm rightly describes the mediated nature of DRA in Isa 6 when he says, “Once again a reference to divine hardening appears, but in this case Yahweh did not directly and supernaturally harden pagans. Instead He would harden His own people indirectly through the ministry of His prophetic messenger.” Chisholm, “Divine Hardening,” 430.
58 Uhlig is probably correct to describe the hardening as the perlocutionary effect of Isaiah’s speech acts. See Uhlig, Theme of Hardening, 115–16.
59 As Chisholm rightly points out, God did not have to send Isaiah on this mission. See Chisholm, “Divine Hardening,” 432.
60 Contra Young, Isaiah 1–18, 259–61.
61 While it seems clear that DRA is depicted in Isa 29:9–14, some ambiguity exists with reference to Isa 8:14–16. However, I have been persuaded by Uhlig’s argument that these latter verses also
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presented as working against Israel’s salvation by preventing the nation as a whole from grasping the meaning of his work and his word. In Isaiah 8:14–16, YHWH accomplishes this by restricting the comprehension of the prophetic instruction among a limited
group,
62leaving the rest of Israel incapable of rightly responding to the divine word
63; meanwhile, in Isaiah 29:9–14, the Lord pours out a “spirit of deep sleep” ( ה מ ד ר ת ח ו ר ) among the people by deluding their prophets in order dull the nation to Isaiah’s message.
64While both seem to describe a non-eternal, retributive, mediate form of
refer to reprobating activity. Uhlig contends for a connection in Isa 8:14–16 between God’s assumed role as a “stumbling block,” the prophet’s work to seal the testimony, and divine hardening. Moreover, Uhlig credibly posits that “the sealing of the prophetic declaration (Isa 8:16) is the realization of the ‘stumbling block’ of Isa 8:14. . . . YHWH becomes a stumbling block (לושכמרוצ) by binding up (רוצ) the prophetic message.” Uhlig, Theme of Hardening, 276.
62 As I have noted elsewhere, I take ידמל in 8:16 to refer to a minority group within Israel who were not hardened by God and were therefore faithful to YHWH (see chap. 2, s.v. “Divine Hardening”).
63 The nature of the “binding” and “sealing” in Isa 8:16 has been the subject of some debate.
Some have argued that this refers to a legal or official procedure. On the one hand, Irvine argues that the text speaks to the deposit of Isaiah’s words in the temple archive. Such a deposit would then provide Ahaz with the means to assess oracles of other intermediaries (see Irvine, Isaiah, Ahaz, 205–6). On the other hand, Isbell believes that the verse in question speaks to a legal act performed by Isaiah’s students in order to ensure the verification of their teacher’s message in the future (see Charles David Isbell, “The
Limmûdîm in the Book of Isaiah,” JSOT 34, no. 1 [2009]: 99–101). In my view, both of these interpreters mistake figurative language for literal language. As Wildberger correctly observes, the “binding” (רוצ) and
“sealing” (םתח) mentioned in Isa 8:16 must be understood metaphorically. So he states, “Just as someone puts something particularly valuable into a tied up or sealed purse for safe-keeping, Isaiah wants to deposit his valuable treasure, his admonition and instruction, within his disciples.” Wildberger, Isaiah 1–12, 366;
see also Smith, Isaiah 1–39, 228–29; Young, Isaiah 1–18, 313; Mackay, Isaiah 1–39, 228. Balogh agrees, specifying that Isa 8:16 uses a legal metaphor to make the point that “the addresses [sic.], the ‘disciples’, receive these authentic instructions to adhere to them, to make use of them and not in order to conceal them for coming generations.” Csaba Balogh, “Isaiah’s Prophetic Instruction and the Disciples in Isaiah 8:16,”
VT 63 (2013): 17–18. Moreover, given YHWH’s announcement that he would be a “stone of stumbling”
and a “trap” to both houses of Israel (Isa 8:14), and given Isaiah’s belief that YHWH was “hiding his face from the house of Jacob” (Isa 8:17), it seems likely that Isa 8:16 intends a contrast between those who would be granted the ability to take Isaiah’s message to heart (YHWH’s “disciples”) and the rest who would not (so also Smith, Isaiah 1–18, 313). Thus, Calvin rightly says regarding Isa 8:16, “God compares this teaching to a sealed letter. It may be felt and handled by many people, but it is only read and
understood by a few––that is, by those to whom it is sent and addressed. . . . The Lord will reserve for himself some disciples by whom his letter will be read with advantage, though it is closed to others.” John Calvin, Isaiah, Crossway Classic Commentaries (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2000), 85.
64 It is difficult to determine whether the “spirit of deep sleep” refers to a personal agent (cf.
Judg 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19–23) or to the disposition of Israel (cf. Num 5:14). In other words, does Isa 29 refer to God sending a spirit to effect spiritual stupor among the Israelites, or does it speak figuratively of God
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DRA,
65the two texts exhibit a difference with regard to the manner in which YHWH’s involvement is envisioned: namely, Isaiah 8:14–16 may describe YHWH’s influence as being passive,
66while Isaiah 29:9–14 seems to depict DRA as being active.
67In addition to these passages from the first half of the book, the closing section (Isa 56–66) also bears witness to DRA against Israel in Isaiah 63:7–64:11.
68Within this
producing a disposition of stupor among the Israelites? In her study of biblical references to divinely sent deceitful spirits, Hamori does not come to a firm conclusion regarding the “spirit of deep sleep” in Isa 29.
As she states, “The sense of חור here may overlap with inclination and also reflect familiarity with the tradition of the spirit of falsehood.” Hamori, “Spirit of Falsehood,” 24. In common with several commentators (see for instance Smith, Isaiah 1–39, 499; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 404; Brueggemann, Isaiah 1–39, 233), I lean towards interpreting the “spirit” as a figurative reference to Israel’s disposition, but I do so tentatively. In any event, what the passage does make clear is that “the sleep imposed by Yhwh prevents the comprehension of prophetic vision.” Hayes, “Spirit of Deep Sleep,” 49.
65 In neither passage is there any evidence that Isaiah had Israel’s eternal state in mind.
Moreover, in both texts, Israel’s sin seems to be the occasion for God’s negative influence. On the one hand, Isa 8:13–14 suggests that Israel’s disposition (i.e., their refusal to fear God) was the reason they experienced YHWH as a stumbling stone instead of as a refuge (so also Motyer, Prophecy of Isaiah, 95;
Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 234). On the other hand, Isa 29:13–14 seems to provide the reason for God’s deluding influence upon Israel describe in vv. 9–12 (see Brueggemann, Isaiah 1–39, 235). Lastly, both passages suggest a mediating agent between God and Israel. Isa 8:14–16 pictures Isaiah as being involved.
Meanwhile, if “the prophets” and “the seers” function in apposition to “your eyes” and “your heads” in Isa 29:10 (see Roberts, First Isaiah, 368), then the passage would describe God’s influence upon Israel as taking place through the ministry of false prophets (cf. 1 Kgs 22:19–23). At the same time however, Isa 29:10 does suggest that the religious leaders are subjected to an immediate form of DRA, as God directly impacts their discernment.
66 The passage seems to describe God’s retributive influence as a withholding of understanding. That is, YHWH functions as a stumbling block by “sealing” the prophetic word, i.e., granting comprehension (through the ministry of Isaiah) to a select few while choosing not to democratize access to the meaning of the divine message. For this reason, it seems best to label Isa 8:14–16’s
description of DRA “passive.”
67 The verbs used in Isa 29:10 ascribe an active role to YHWH, who stands behind Israel’s deluded state (rightly Brueggemann, Isaiah 1–39, 233).
68 Several scholars argue that the theological assertions of the petition found in Isa 63:7–64:11 are corrected or rejected in Isa 65. See for instance Uhlig, Theme of Hardening, 303–8; Judith Gärtner,
“‘Why Do You Let Us Stray from Your Paths...’ (Isa 63:17): The Concept of Guilt in the Communal Lament Isa 63:7–64:11,” in Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 1, The Origins of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism (Atlanta: SBL, 2006), 151–63; Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, “The Lament in Isaiah 63:7–64:11 and Its Literary and Theological Place in Isaiah 40–66,” in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew, ed. Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 57–64;
Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book, Oxford Theological Monographs [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011], 30–32; Brooks Schramm, The Opponents of Third Isaiah: Reconstructing the Cultic History of the Restoration, JSOTSup (Sheffield,