BIOTROPIKA Journal of Tropical Biology
https://biotropika.ub.ac.id/
Vol. 11 | No. 1 | 2023 | DOI: 10.21776/ub.biotropika.2023.011.01.03 EVALUATION OF NATURAL ENEMY ABUNDANCE BASED ON RIPARIAN VEGETATION AT RICE FIELD IN SLAMET VILLAGE, EAST JAVA, INDONESIA
Faidatu Ummi1)*, Catur Retnaningdyah1), Bagyo Yanuwiadi1)
ABSTRACT
Riparian vegetation habitats in irrigation canals provide various ecosystem regulatory services for human life. One of them was providing a habitat of natural enemies for agricultural pests. This research aims to evaluate the community structure of natural enemies based on the diversity index and abundance value, and riparian vegetation community in the four different categories of tertiary irrigation canals at the Slamet Village rice field. Arthropods were observed using a visual encounter survey and yellow pan trap methods for fifteen days. At the same time, riparian vegetation analysis was also applied by purposive sampling. The results showed that the first location of irrigation canals had the highest Shannon-Wiener diversity index, taxa richness, evenness, and the lowest dominance value of riparian vegetation with respectively 4.97; 37 species; 0.93; and 0.02.
Moreover, it was followed by high natural enemy’s taxa richness based on yellow pan trap and visual encounter survey (16 and 28 families), total abundance (554 and 4450 individuals), diversity index (1.83 and 3.67), evenness index (0.77 and 0.68), and low dominance index (0.22 and 0.21). Arthropods that act as natural enemies commonly found in this location came from the Formicidae, Coenagrionidae, and Coccinelidae families, while the most common pests found were from the Acrididae family. The opposite of that, the fourth location had a high dominance index of riparian vegetation (0.15), diversity index of pest (1.83), taxa richness of pest (10 families), and 272 individuals of pest arthropod arthropods. The highest abundance of pests in this location came from the Acrididae, Drosophilidae, Tephritidae, and Aphididae families.
Keywords: riparian vegetation, Slamet Village, natural enemies, tertiary irrigation canals
INTRODUCTION
Slamet Village is in Tumpang District, Malang Regency, East Java Province, Indonesia, which most of the land use in this area is agriculture with several crop plantations and still applies conventional farming practices with chemical fertilizers. The use of chemical fertilizers will have negative impacts, such as accumulation in crop yields, pest resistance, reduced natural enemies, and pest resurgence [1]. Moreover, the decrease of natural enemies at the paddy field can be caused by the alteration in the irrigation canal design and riparian vegetation degradation. However, in this case, some of the tertiary irrigation canals in Slamet Village are still with natural riparian vegetation conditions, and some have turned into stone walls. Thus, the alteration of riparian vegetation in irrigation canals will decrease ecosystem services provided to humans.
As a natural resource, riparian vegetation has important functions and roles both ecologically and economically [2]. The existence of riparian vegetation habitat also provides benefits such as being an indicator for a healthy aquatic environment and is one of the ecosystem services obtained by humans in irrigation canals, and riparian vegetation in irrigation canals can also act as refugia. Refugia is a plant around cultivated
crops as a microhabitat for arthropods against pest agriculture. Example of refugia that provides benefit in agricultural land are Mimosa pudica and Vernonia cinerea. These plants can attract natural enemies so that they can function as environmentally friendly pest control agents [3].
Meanwhile, adding flowering plants, such as sesame and wedelia, to the rice field agroecosystem can reduce the level of pest attacks [4]. Based on the characteristics of the irrigation canals in Slamet Village, there are indications of a decrease in natural enemy abundance and an increase in pest abundance in the paddy field.
This research aims to evaluate the community structure of natural enemies based on the diversity index and abundance value, and riparian vegetation community in the four different categories of tertiary irrigation canals at the Slamet Village rice field. The evaluation result can be a basis for managing agricultural ecosystems to improve ecosystem services.
METHODS
Study area. This research was conducted from February to August 2018 at four locations of tertiary irrigation canals at Slamet Village, Tumpang District, East Java, Indonesia (7°59'57.3"S 112°43'49.7"E). The first location (I)
Submitted : November, 10 2022 Accepted : February, 21 2023
Authors affiliation:
1)Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Brawijaya, Indonesia
Correspondence email:
How to cite:
Ummi, F, Retnaningdyah C, Yanuwiadi B.
2023. Evaluation of natural enemy abundance based on riparian vegetation at rice field in Slamet Village, East Java, Indonesia. Journal of Tropical Biology 11 (1): 17-27.
Figure 1. Riparian vegetation and arthropods sampling location. Note: R2P/first location (I); R2TP/second location (II); RP/third location (III); P/fourth location (IV)
is an irrigation canal with high diversity and natural vegetation (7o59’25.5” S and 112o44’19.0” E). The second location (II) is an irrigation canal with two- sided riparian vegetation (7°59’27.53”S and 112°44’21.69”E). The third location (III) is an irrigation canal with a one-sided riparian vegetation canal (7°59’23.92”S and 112°44’10.97”E). The fourth location (IV) is an irrigation canal from stone walls without natural riparian vegetation (7°59'39.25"S and 112°43'26.52"E).
Riparian vegetation sampling. Riparian data collection was carried out with the quadratic method. Quadratic method is a method that uses plots sample, sample plot can be square, square length and circle. Three sub-locations were chosen as replication sampling sites of each location, with the length of each site being fifteen meters, the width adjusting to the condition of the irrigation canal, and the distance between sites being ten meters. The riparian vegetation was observed in the morning and classified into two groups, namely ground cover and shrubs-tree plant. The riparian vegetation was also identified to know its status, whether native or exotic plant species.
Arthropods sampling. Arthropod sampling was carried out using two methods to avoid disturbing their activities and make observing aerial arthropods in the riparian vegetation area feasible. Arthropods were observed by visual encounter survey and yellow pan trap methods.
The visual encounter survey is distance observation, in which the researcher directly observes insects visiting plants with an observation
distance of two meters within a certain time.
Sampling with the visual encounter method was carried out three times a day in each riparian vegetation for fifteen minutes per period (7- 8.15 AM; 10–11.15 AM; and 12–1.15 PM). On the other hand, the yellow pan trap method was used to trap arthropods that had wings and actively fly (aerial) as well as arthropods that were attracted to the yellow colour. The yellow pan trap used was a yellow round tray. The yellow trays were filled with a mixture of water, detergent, and alcohol, and then placed at each observation location according to a predetermined irrigation canal design, whereas observations with the yellow pan trap method were carried out from 7 AM-1.15 PM. Observations were repeated for fifteen days. The results obtained from this method are then transferred to a sample bottle and identified in the laboratory. Arthropods found were then regrouped based on their role as pests and natural enemies.
Microclimate observation. The observed microclimate parameters included air temperature, humidity, and light intensity. All microclimate parameters were observed at each location and based on three specified periods (7 AM; 10 AM;
and 12 AM). Air temperature (°C) was measured with a thermometer. Air humidity was measured by looking at the numbers that appear on wet and dry temperatures and then matching them to the relative humidity table. Then, the light intensity was measured by a lux meter.
Data analysis. The riparian vegetation and natural enemy community structure were analyzed by some indices. There was total abundance,
Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H’), Simpson dominance index (D), evenness index (E), and taxa richness (TR). Besides that, the result of the importance value index (IVI) riparian vegetation was also presented.
Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H’) and Simpson dominance index (D) were calculated by the following formula:
𝐻′ = − ∑ 𝑃𝑖2log 𝑃𝑖
𝑆
𝑖=1
𝐷 = ∑(𝑁𝑖 − 1) (𝑁 − 1)
Pi was the proportion of species-i to the total number, and S was the total number of the community. Then, Ni was the total number of species-i, and N was the total number of individuals.
Furthermore, the Shannon-Wiener diversity index criteria were used to determine riparian vegetation and arthropod diversity levels. If:
H' > 3 : high diversity 1 ≤ H' ≤ 3 : moderate diversity H' < 1 : low diversity
The dominance index was also classified into three categories:
<0.4 : low domination 0.4–0.6 : moderate domination
>0.6 : high domination
The evenness index (E) was calculated by the following formula:
𝐸 = 𝐻′
𝑆
The evenness index (E) value was classified into three categories:
<0.4 : low evenness, 0.4–0.6 : moderate evenness 0.6 : high evenness
Moreover, natural enemy abundance and interactions between parameters were tested by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using the PAST program.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Riparian vegetation profile in tertiary irrigation canals. Riparian vegetation observed from several locations indicates the presence of varied riparian vegetation, which was still conserved until it was already degraded. The
riparian vegetation profile in irrigation canals was illustrated in the dominance index (D), taxa richness, H’ index, and evenness index (Table 1).
The results showed that the dominance index (D) of ground cover ranged from 0.02 (first location) to 0.15 (fourth location), and the fourth location had high dominance of riparian species than others. All locations were classified as low dominance because the dominance value was less than 4. In addition, the results of the amount of taxa richness followed, which was the opposite of the dominance index.
Taxa richness is the total of different species present in a region or ecological environment. The high level of taxa richness was determined by the high number of species found. The fourth location had the lowest taxa richness (8 species), while the highest was in the first location, with 37 riparian species.
The H’ value of ground cover in the first location showed the highest of all locations (4.97), and the lowest was observed in the fourth location (2.33). The high diversity index at the first location indicated that the environment was more stable than the other locations. In addition, the greater H’
value indicated high species diversity. The diversity value indicated that all locations had moderate to high riparian diversity because the value ranged between 2 to more than 3. Then, the highest evenness index (E) value was 0.93 in the first location, and the lowest was 0.54 in the fourth location. However, all locations were still classified with moderate to high evenness. If the evenness value was close to one indicated that a community was more evenly distributed, whereas if the value was closer to zero, the species distribution was uneven. Thus, it would be dominated by certain species [5]. For the shrubs- tree group in the first location, we found 12 plant species, with the dominance index in this location being 0.37. The H' value was 2.18, which classified as moderate diversity, and the evenness index value was 0.48 as moderate evenness (Table 1).
Figure 2 about ground cover’s importance value index showed that the riparian species that dominate in each location are different. In the first location, there was no dominance of riparian vegetation. This is evidenced by the results of dominance index calculations which show a result of 0.02 in the first location. It was due to the very high level of uniformity at this location. There was a codominance of several species in the first location, such as Chromolaena odorata, Eleusine indica, Pteris vittata, Pteris biaurita, Mikania cordata, and Imperata. Chromolaena odorata was a weed that included invasive plants from the Asteraceae family, which had proven effective in attracting insects from the Coccinellidae family
[6]. Meanwhile, Eleusine indica could flower throughout the year, and each individual could produce 140,000 seeds each season so that it spreads quickly. E. indica was a wild plant commonly grown on the edge of the land. This species could be helpful in the conservation of natural enemies so that there will be no pest population outbreak in the rice fields [7]. Mikania cordata and Pteris sp. were categorised as invasive
plant species. Additionally, Imperata cylindrica was one of the weeds in rice fields that could potentially attract Anaxipha longipennis. Anaxipha longipennis was one of the generalist predators in the rice field that have a role as a biological control agent of rice leaf folder eggs and small insects) as the oviposition preference [8].
Table 1. The diversity index and dominance value of riparian vegetation in each location
Location Ground covers Shrubs-Trees
D TR H’ E D TR H’ E
I 0.02 37 4.97 0.93 0.37 12 2.18 0.48
II 0.08 19 3.72 0.79 0 0 0 0
III 0.10 13 3.39 0.62 0 0 0 0
IV 0.15 8 2.33 0.54 0 0 0 0
Figure 2. IVI of the ten highest taxa’s riparian vegetation in each location
Meanwhile, in the second location, several species co-dominated were observed, such as Eleutheranthera ruderalis (20.9%), Axonopus sp.
(18.21%), Imperata cylindrica (16.21%), and Mikania cordata (16.21%). In the fourth location, there was a codominance of species, namely Chloris barbata (35.4%), Brachiaria sp. (31.8%), and Cynodon dactylon (25.8%). Chloris barbata and Cynodon dactylon were weeds that were invasive plants, fast-growing and forming dense communities dominated in agricultural and non- agricultural areas [9]. However, this species had the potential as a refugia for predator Cyrtorhinus sp. [10]. The presence of invasive species was detrimental to biodiversity. This invasive species will breed and continue to spread even though there are no more introductions, and the ecosystem was no longer disturbed.
Furthermore, several invasive plant species were also found in other species in this research location, named Mimosa pudica and Centrosema pubescens. The codominance of several species
found in this location was also following the low diversity index calculation value and high dominance value compared to the other three locations. In the category of shrubs and trees, the species with high importance value index in the first location were Manihot utilissima (74.6%), Bambusa blumeana (41%), and Hibiscus tiliaceus (27.53%).
Microclimate parameters in Slamet Village.
Abiotic is an important factor in an ecosystem that has certain characteristics to support the formation of an ecosystem. Abiotic can affect directly or indirectly the survival and reproduction of every living creature or organism. This study also measured microclimate parameters such as air temperature, humidity, and light intensity.
Temperature and humidity are one of important microclimate parameters in the terrestrial environment. Temperature and humidity are related. It can be because the temperature will also change when the air humidity changes. The results of air temperature measurements at three different
0 50 100 150 200
Ground covers Shrubs-Trees Ground covers Shrubs-Trees Ground covers Shrubs-Trees Ground covers Shrubs-Trees
I II III IV
Importance Value Index (%)
Location
Mikania cordata Imperata cylindrica Chromolaena odorata Eleusine indica Pennisetum purpureum
Centrosema pubescens Syngonium podophyllum Pteris vitata Pteris beaurita Axonopus sp.
Eleutheranthera ruderalis Alocasia macrorrhiza Cyperus rotundus Cynodon dactylon Brachiaria sp.
Paspalum commersonii Chloris barbata Sida acuta Cynodon dactylon Other taxa
Manihot utilisima Cocos nucifera Bambusa blumeana Ficus septica Hibiscus tiliaceus
Other taxa
times ranged from 26.2oC-32.7oC. At 10 AM, the temperatures at all observation locations were higher than in the other two measuring times. This can be caused because, at 7 AM and 12 AM, the direction of the sun's rays was slanted, so less energy reaches the ground. While the temperature at 12 AM was lower than at 7 AM because, at the time of observation, it has entered the rainy season, where it tends to be cloudy towards rain in the afternoon. The highest average temperature at all locations was in the fourth location without natural riparian vegetation. This could be due to very minimal vegetation cover in this location compared to the other three locations.
On the other hand, air humidity is inversely proportional to air temperature. When the air temperature is high, the air humidity will be low.
This is because the high air temperature will cause
precipitation. It was followed by the results of humidity observations at the four locations, which showed that the lowest humidity values were in the fourth location at 7 AM (59%) and the highest in the first location at 7 AM (73%).
If a place has a high vegetation density, the air humidity is also high. This condition can happen because the litter covers the soil surface tightly, causing water vapour to be locked in it.
Conversely, if vegetation density was low, then the air humidity in that place was also low because the litter covering the ground surface was also rare. Air humidity that is too low and too high inhibits plant growth and flowering [11]. Air humidity can affect plant growth because it can affect the process of photosynthesis. The rate of photosynthesis increases as the humidity around the plant increases.
Figure 3. Air temperature average in each location
Figure 4. Air humidity average in each location
Figure 5. Light intensity average in each location
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM 7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM 7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM 7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM
I II III IV
Air Temperature (oC)
Location
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM 7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM 7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM 7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM
I II III IV
Air Humidify (%)
Location
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM 7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM 7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM 7:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 AM
I II III IV
Light Intensity (lux)
Location
Sunlight affects the rise and fall of the earth's surface temperature and influences other weather elements. The level of sunlight energy received depends on the length of sunlight that shines directly on the land, whether it is in the form of forest, vacant land, tightly closed or others. The light intensity value ranges from 22.522 lux to 106.722 lux. The lowest light intensity value was in the fourth location at 12 AM. This could be due to weather conditions at the time of observation which tended to be cloudy towards rain because it was entering the rainy season. Light intensity also affects the life of organisms, especially arthropods.
Sunlight is needed indirectly by animals, but sunlight can be used as a marker of certain activities. Energy from radiant heat around organisms also helps regulate the body temperature of arthropods through its effect on plant growth.
Changes in light intensity around plantings may affect the activity of taking food [12].
The abundance of natural enemies of agricultural pests in Slamet village. Based on the results of arthropod observations through visual control and yellow pan trap methods, arthropods found were then regrouped based on their role as pests and natural enemies. It can be seen in Tables 2 and 3 that the composition of natural enemy arthropods and pests in each location based on the yellow pan trap method was different. The first location had a higher natural enemy abundance than the other three locations. This can be caused by several factors, including the condition of riparian vegetation, which was high in diversity compared to other locations. Thus, the existence of riparian vegetation can be an alternative habitat for a variety of arthropods. The presence of arthropods can also be used as an indicator of ecosystem balance. This means that if the diversity of arthropods in the ecosystem is high, the ecosystem environment can be said to be balanced or stable.
Table 2. Ecological index of the natural enemy and pest in each location based on yellow pan trap method Ecological Index Location I Location II Location III Location IV
Natural Enemy
K 554 472 373 209
H’ 2.96 2.42 1.87 0.51
E 0.77 0.48 0.37 0.26
TR 16 11 9 4
D 0.22 0.29 0.37 0.49
Pest
K 149 178 235 272
H’ 0.62 1.16 1.40 1.83
E 0.19 0.30 0.46 0.57
TR 4 5 7 10
D 0.64 0.43 0.32 0.21
Note: K: total abundance (individual), H’: Shannon-Wiener diversity index, E: evenness index, TR: taxa richness, D: dominance index
Table 3. Ecological index of the natural enemy in each location based on visual encounter survey Ecological Index Location I Location II Location III Location IV Total abundance (individual)
7-8.15 AM 4450 3213 2826 1182
10-11.15 AM 3631 3097 2513 1211
12-1.15 PM 3507 2970 2385 981
Shannon-Wiener Index (H’)
7-8.15 AM 3.67 3.28 2.90 2.31
10-11.15 AM 3.44 3.19 2.87 2.36
12–1.15 PM 3.31 2.96 2.55 1.97
Evenness index (E)
7-8.15 AM 0.68 0.63 0.52 0.47
10-11.15 AM 0.65 0.60 0.50 0.48
12–1.15 PM 0.64 0.59 0.49 0.44
Taxa richness (family)
7-8.15 AM 28 23 13 7
10-11.15 AM 27 20 11 8
12–1.15 PM 25 18 9 5
Dominance Index (D)
7-8.15 AM 0.13 0.19 0.25 0.40
10-11.15 AM 0.16 0.20 0.34 0.38
12–1.15 PM 0.18 0.23 0.37 0.42
The total abundance (K) of arthropods based on the yellow pan trap method ranged from 209-554 individuals. The highest total abundance value of natural enemies was found at the first location, which is the highest diversity of riparian vegetation and the lowest was at the fourth location (Table 2).
On the other hand, based on Table 3, the highest abundance of arthropods based on visual encounter surveys at each location occurred at 7–8.15 AM at the first location (4450 individuals). Differences in the microclimate parameters lead to differences in the structure of the arthropod community at each location. The air temperature at 7–8.15 AM was lower, and the humidity was higher than during the day. It was a time usually the flowers bloomed currently. The air temperature at 7–8.15 AM at the four locations ranged from 30-31°C, so it was still suitable for arthropod mobility.
Arthropods generally visit in the morning from 07.00-10.00 AM, which coincides with when the flowers bloom. This is because arthropods have an optimum temperature for their lives [13]. In general, the effective temperature range is a minimum temperature of 15ºC, an optimum temperature of 25°C and a maximum temperature of 45°C. Some of the arthropod families that had the highest number of them were Formicidae, Coenagrionidae, and Coccinellidae. However, in the fourth location, the highest total abundance occurred at 10–11.15 AM, with many arthropods being found from the Coenagrionidae family.
The Formicidae family had good adaptability to environmental conditions that were not following their life skills, so ants became the most dominant predatory arthropods among other arthropods [14].
The high number of Formicidae families found could be due to the abundance of vegetation and the environment in the rice fields that had humid conditions. Arthropods that had the second largest number are the family Coenagrionidae. The Coenagrionidae family can live in various habitats, both in flowing and non-flowing waters. The high adaptability of this family causes the high number of species found in various habitats.
The Coenagrionidae family was an aggressive predator and cannibal and ate almost all arthropods [15]. The nature of dragonfly was very active and often flew somewhat erratically and was known as a glider arthropod, like the dragonfly that preyed on many pest arthropods on agricultural land and was an active arthropod, so dragonflies were often found in this study. In addition, dragonflies act as a bio-indicator in the sustainability of an ecosystem [16]. In polluted waters, the dragonfly larvae population will decrease and interfere with their life cycle. Furthermore, the high abundance of the Coccinellidae family in the study area was thought to have occurred because the vegetable crops were
planted in rice fields, which other vegetable crops, rice plants, and other annual crops surrounded.
This causes the plant species to be more diverse (tends to be polyculture) and provides a variety of food sources for predatory Coccinellidae [17].
Another factor that affected the density of arthropods in all locations was human intervention.
Irrigation canals without riparian vegetation can cause a loss of natural habitat for natural enemies of agricultural pests, so the abundance of arthropods in the fourth location was much less than in locations with diverse riparian vegetation.
The changes in the diversity of vegetation communities can cause variations in specific patterns of locust biodiversity because grasshoppers usually had a special dependence on vegetation and microclimate [18]. It was followed by the results of observations that showed the first location had the highest riparian vegetation diversity among others. In contrast, the fourth location had the highest pest abundance than the natural enemy. Pests found in this location came from Acrididae, Alydidae, Aleyrodidae, and Aphididae. The high abundance and family of pests in the fourth location was because the rice fields around the irrigation canal were planted for not only rice but also vegetables and fruits such as tomatoes, red chillies, and lettuce. In a study, Nuryani showed that pests that usually attack red chilli in the fruiting phase (>65 days after planting) were aphids, whitefly (Aleyrodidae), Drosophilidae, trips, and fruit caterpillars [19].
Additionally, the Alydidae family often occurs in the fourth location in the morning (07.00-08.15 AM). It could be influenced by the temperature and humidity that supports it. The high abundance of stink bugs found in the morning was caused by ecological parameters, namely, the air temperature was still quite cool, so stink bugs actively sucked on the fruit and were also actively mating [20].
The high natural enemy diversity index (H’) based on the yellow pan trap method was found in the first location, and the low diversity index was in the fourth location with respectively 2.96 (moderate diversity) and 0.51 (low diversity).
Additionally, the lowest H' value for the pest category was at the first location (0.62), while the highest was observed at the fourth location (1.83).
All locations were classified as low to moderate diversity. It was because the diversity index value ranges from 0 to <2. Meanwhile, based on the visual encounter survey in Table 3, H’ index value ranged from 1.97 to 3.67 and was classified as moderate to high diversity. The highest diversity index occurred in the first location at 7–8.15 AM, and the lowest was in the fourth location at 12–1.15 PM. Species diversity tends to be low in physically controlled ecosystems with strong limiting factors
while increasing in natural ecosystems [21]. The condition of rice fields that use insecticides will affect the diversity of predatory arthropods, which causes a decrease in species abundance and distribution. Land management, such as pesticide use, also reduced species diversity [22].
The TR values based on the yellow pan trap obtained ranged from 4-16 families (Table 2), whereas the taxa richness based on visual encounter ranges from 5-28 families (Table 3). The highest taxa richness values in the natural enemies and pest group were found in the first location. The high TR value of arthropods found in this location was due to the availability of food and the habits of the arthropods. The dense riparian vegetation in this location with high diversity can also be a natural habitat for arthropods, both arthropods that act as pests and natural enemies. Moreover, the more stable climatic conditions in this location also affect the richness of arthropod species. Stable climatic conditions led to high species richness of arthropods [23]. It also followed the analysis results, which showed that the Shannon-Wiener diversity index value in the natural enemy category at this location has the highest value than others.
Moreover, the taxa richness of pests based on the yellow pan trap method in the last location was ten families with natural enemies only four families (Table 2).
The evenness index (E) was the value of the number of individuals in the population members that make up a community. The evenness index value of natural enemy based on the yellow pan trap method obtained was between 0.26 (low evenness) to 0.77 (high evenness). In contrast, the evenness index based on the visual encounter survey ranges from 0.47 (moderate evenness) to 0.68 (high evenness). The smaller the value of evenness was close to zero, the more unequal the distribution of species in the community was dominated by certain species. The highest average value of the evenness index of natural enemies was at the first location (Table 3). It showed that the evenness of arthropods in this location was very high. This result was consistent with the high diversity index value at this location. Besides that, the highest average evenness index value occurred in the morning because the humidity level was high. For arthropods, the optimum tolerance range for humidity was within the maximum point of 73- 100 per cent, so the humid morning weather can stimulate arthropod populations' growth.
In the fourth location, the highest dominance index value of natural enemies based on the yellow pan trap was 0.49 (moderate dominance). The lowest was 0.22 (low dominance) in the first location. As opposed to natural enemies, the dominance index of the pest was in the first
location and the lowest one in the fourth location, respectively 0.64 and 0.21. Based on the visual encounter survey, the highest dominance index was 0.41 (moderate dominance), which occurred at 12–
1.15 PM in the fourth location, and the lowest was 0.13 (low dominance) at 7–8.15 AM in the first location. Furthermore, the high dominance index (D) value in the fourth location means that certain species dominated the arthropods found in this location. It was confirmed by the results of observations of taxa richness and total abundance at this location which was low compared to the other three locations. The dominant arthropod family in this fourth location was the Formicidae family. But on the other hand, the arthropods that also had a high abundance during the day at this location was from the Coenagrionidae family. This was under the characteristics of life because dragonflies were an arthropod group that was active during the day [24].
In more detail, the composition between natural enemies and pests in each location can be seen from the comparison of the percentage in Figure 6 and the role of arthropods in Table 2. From this point of view, we found out that the percentage of natural enemies and pests in the first and fourth locations inversely.
Figure 6. Percentage composition of the natural enemy and pest in each location
The first location had a natural enemy percentage of 34.45% and 17.87 per cent of pests.
Thirteen families were found to act as predators, and three families as parasitoids. The three families that act as parasitoids were Braconidae, Trichogrammatidae, and Tachinidae. Braconidae was parasitoid that had the parasitic potential for Liriomyza sp. This family was dominant in the high plains. However, the spread of these parasitoids had expanded to the lowlands [25]. While in the second location, the natural enemies were 29.35%, with 28.18% pests. Three families as parasitoids, and eight families as predators. Pest families found in this location were from Acrididae, Tephritidae, Drosophilidae, Alydidae, and Aleyrodidae. The
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
I II III IV
Percentage of Abundance (%)
Location Natural Enemy Pest
third location indicated 23.2% of the natural enemy and 28.18% of pests. Nine families were the natural enemy, with seven families as act pests. In the last location, the percentage of pests was double than the percentage of natural enemies, with respectively 13% and 32.61%.
Based on Figure 7, the grouping of each location characteristics was determined through biplot analysis which is grouped based on the abundance of arthropods and riparian vegetation community structure. The results represented that the first and second locations were characterized by high riparian vegetation diversity (H’), natural enemy abundance, pest dominance, taxa richness (TR) of riparian vegetation, and evenness index (E) of riparian and natural enemy arthropods.
However, it had a low riparian dominance index value (D), natural enemy, and pest abundance.
Meanwhile, the third and fourth locations were characterized by high riparian vegetation, natural enemy dominance, pest abundance, and diversity.
Moreover, the dense riparian vegetation could be an alternative habitat for arthropods, so the
diversity index and taxa richness value were also high at this location. On the other hand, the third and fourth locations also had almost the same characteristics as irrigation canals without riparian vegetation, which were characterized by the dominance index value (D) of riparian and pest abundance. It was because the riparian vegetation in these two locations had been degraded and even converted into stone walls.
The three arthropod families with the highest percentage as the natural enemy were Formicidae, Coenagrionidae, and Coccinellidae families.
Coenagrionidae can act as a bio-indicator for environmental health. Dragonflies reproduce in a healthy aquatic environment. Needle dragonflies were predators in rice cultivation and were considered to play an essential role in naturally controlling pests in rice crops. Apart from being very diverse species, their numbers can also be abundant in nature [26]. The daily temperature at the first location tends to be quite stable, ranging from 26.6-32oC, which was still at the temperature threshold required for dragonfly life.
Table 4. The role of arthropod composition in each location
Family Location I Location II Location III Location IV Role
Formicidae √ √ √ √ Predator
Oxyopidae √ √ √ Predator
Coccinellidae √ √ √ √ Predator
Braconidae √ √ Parasitoid
Libellulidae √ √ Predator
Coenagrionidae √ √ √ √ Predator
Lycosidae √ Predator
Trichogrammatidae √ √ √ Parasitoid
Sphecidae √ √ Predator
Vespidae √ √ Predator
Tachinidae √ √ Parasitoid
Crysomelidae √ √ Predator
Gnaphosidae √ √ Predator
Anyphaenidae √ Predator
Staphylinidae √ √ √ Predator
Stratiomyidae √ √ √ Predator
Acrididae √ √ √ √ Pest
Tephritidae √ √ √ Pest
Pieridae √ Pest
Drosophilidae √ √ √ Pest
Flatidae √ Pest
Alydidae √ √ √ √ Pest
Geometridae √ Pest
Sarcophagidae √ Pest
Hyblaeidae √ Pest
Chloropidae √ Pest
Aleyrodidae √ √ √ √ Pest
Aphididae √ √ Pest
Figure 7. Biplot analysis based on the abundance of natural enemies and riparian vegetation in irrigation canals at Slamet Village using PCA. Note: K NA: Abundance of Natural Enemy; E NA: Evenness Index of Natural Enemy; D NA: Dominance Index of Natural Enemy; TR NA: Taxa Richness of Natural Enemy; H’ NA:
Shannon Wiener of Natural Enemy; KP: Abundance of Pest; EP: Evenness of Pest; DP: Dominance of Pest;
TRP: Taxa Richness of Pest; HP: Shannon Wiener of Pest; Loc 1: First location; I1-3: First until third replicates of first location; Loc 2: Second location; Loc 3: Third location; Loc 4: Fourth location.
CONCLUSION
Based on the research result, it was concluded that alteration in the irrigation canal design and riparian vegetation degradation affected a decrease in natural enemy abundance in the study area. It was indicated by increased pests such as Acrididae, Alydidae, Aleyrodidae, Drosophilidae, Aphididae, and Tephritidae in the fourth location. The riparian vegetation community profile in the fourth location showed the degradation of arthropod microhabitat, reflected by the lowest taxa richness and the highest dominance value than other locations.
From the analysis, it could be recommended that efforts to manage tertiary irrigation canals be carried out in several ways, including maintaining the presence of riparian vegetation in the irrigation canals and not eliminating the riparian vegetation on the edges of the canals, although the canal is built from stone walls.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks to all Ecology and Tropical Ecosystem Restoration Laboratory, Departement Biology, Universitas Brawijaya members who helped the author conduct this research sampling in the field and supported analyzing samples in the laboratory.
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