fa ell.^

ATOLL

RESEARCH BULLETIN

- - - . - -

NO.

88

C o r a l I s l a n d s by

Charles Darwin

with Introduction, map and remarks by D. R. Stoddart

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE

BOARD

National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council Washington, D. C .

Dzc-.:.;?i- 11, 1 ,2

Coral Islands

Charles Darwin

with Introduction, map and remarks by D. R. Stoddart

Introduction

Charles Darwin, w r i t i n g i n h i s Autobiography towards t h e end of h i s l i f e , looked back t o some of h i s e a r l i e s t s c i e n t i f i c work a s s o c i a t e d with t h e voyage of the Beagle, and was a b l e t o l ' r e f l e c t with high s a t i s - f a c t i o n " on "solving t h e probleln of c o r a l - i s l a n d s . " l During t h e Beagle expedition Darwin had crossed t h e P a c i f i c Ocean, c a l l i n g a t T a h i t i , and then t h e Indian Ocean, making h i s famous observations a t Cocos-Keeling Island, and on h i s r e t u r n home he had given a number of papers t o t h e Geological Society of London. h n g them was one announcing h i s theory of c o r a l r e e f s , "On c e r t a i n a r e a s of e l e v a t i o n and subsidence i n the P a c i f i c and Indian Oceans, a s deduced from t h e study of c o r a l forma- t i o n s , " i n which he o u t l i n e d t h e scheme whereby f r i n g i n g r e e f s were converted i n t o b a r r i e r r e e f s and then i n t o a t o l l s by slow subsidence of the island-foundation. This was t h e first public announcement of t h e theory, and it met with a favourable response, e s p e c i a l l y from

fa ell.^

The substance of t h i s paper was embodied, and g r e a t l y extended, i n the Journal and Researches 1832-1836, published i n 1839 t o accompany t h e o f f i c i a l account of t h e voyage by FitzRoy, and Darwin's ideas were given d e f i n i t i v e treatment i n t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n of The s t r u c t u r e and a s t r i b u - t i o n of Coral Reefs, published i n London i n 1842.3

I n h i s Autobiography, Darwin has t h i s t o say about t h e formulation of h i s theory:

"No o t h e r work of mine was begun i n so deductive a s p i r i t a s t h i s ; f o r t h e whole theory was thought out on t h e west c o a s t of S. America before I had seen a t r u e c o r a l r e e f . I had t h e r e f o r e only t o v e r i f y and extend my views by a c a r e f u l examination of l i v i n g r e e f s , But it should be observed t h a t I had during the two previous years been i n c e s s a n t l y a t t e n d i n g t o the e f f e c t s on t h e shores of S.

America of t h e i n t e r m i t t e n t e l e v a t i o n of t h e land, t o g e t h e r with t h e denudation and t h e deposition of sediment. This

n e c e s s a r i l y l e d me t o r e f l e c t much on t h e e f f e c t s of subsidence, and i t was easy t o r e p l a c e i n imagination t h e continued

deposition of sediment by t h e upward growth of t h i s was t o form my theory of t h e formation of and a t o l l s .

"4

c o r a l . To do b a r r i e r - r e e f s

A l l notes p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e Introduction a r e t o be -1

-

found on p.

4.

The Beagle had been working on t h e west coast of South America i n t h e e a r l i e r p a r t of 1835, and it would therefore be of i n t e r e s t t o know when and i n what form Darwin f i r s t expressed h i s ideas. I n the o r i g i n a l Diary of t h e voyage, he describes the e f f e c t of t h e s i g h t of t h e r e e f -

-

e n c i r c l e d Eimeo ( ~ o o r e a ) , a s seen from T a h i t i on 17th l!Jovember 1835, and on 12th April 1836, i n h i s description of Cocos-Keeling, he plunges i n t o h i s theory without f u r t h e r ado ( t h i s passage was much extended when t h e Diary was r e w r i t t e n f o r publication a s Journal and Researches):

" I f t h e opinion t h a t t h e rock-making Polypi continue t o b u i l d upwards a s t h e foirndation of t h e I s d from volcanic agency, a f t e r i n t e r v a l s , gradually subsides, i s granted t o be true; then probably t h e Coral limestone must be of g r e a t thickness. Ve see c e r t a i n Isds i n t h e Pacifick, such a s T a h i t i & Eimeo, mentioned i n t h i s journal, ~ ~ l l i c h a r e e n c i r c l e d by a Coral reef separated from t h e shore by channels & basins of st511 water. Various causes tend t o check the growth of the most e f f i c i e n t kinds of c o r a l s i n these s i t u a t i o n s . Hence i f we imagine such an Island, a f t e r long successive i n t e r v a l s t o subside a few f e e t , i n a manner similar, b u t with a movement opposite t o the continent of

S. America; t h e c o r a l would be continued upwards, r i s i n g from t h e foundation of t h e e n c i r c l i n g r e e f . I n time the c e n t r a l land would s i n k beneath t h e l e v e l of t h e sea &

disappear, but t h e c o r a l would have colnpleted i t s c i r c u l a r w a l l . Should we not then have a lagoon Island?

-

^Under

t h i s view, we must look a t a Lagoon I s l a n d a s a monument r a i s e d by myriads of t i n y a r c h i t e c t s , to mark t h e spot where a former land l i e s buried i n t h e depths of t h e ocean

. .

^."5

The theory was t h e r e f o r e by t h i s time f a i r l y vell thought out, and i n a l e t t e r t o h i s s i s t e r , Caroline Darwin, s e n t f'rom P o r t Louis, Mauritius, on 29th April

1836,

Darwin explained t h a t "The subject of c o r a l formation has f o r t h e l a s t h a l f year been a p o i n t of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o me. I hope t o be able t o put some of t h e f a c t s i n a more simple and correcte p o i n t of view, than t h a t i n which they have h i t h e r t o been considered."

2

Hence, from about November 1835, Darwin had been s e r i o u s l y exercised on t h e c o r a l r e e f problem. It was on the 9 t h November t h a t he first

c a u g h t , s i g h t of "Lagoon Islands" a s he c a l l e d them, i n t h e Low o r Dangerous (~uamotu) Archipelago, and on t h e 15th he a r r i v e d i n Tahiti.

There he stayed u n t i l 3rd December, when t h e Beagle s a i l e d f o r New Zealand, a r r i v i n g on t h e 21st, and then f o r Australia. He l e f t Australia on 14th March f o r Cocos-Keeling, where he spent eleven days i n e a r l y April, and made h i s way home by South Africa and South America.

Among t h e Earwin ^papers preserved i n the University Library a t Cambridge, there a r e two items e n t i t l e d Coral Islands, one i n Earwin's _---.

own hand, t h e other a f a i r copy with corrections i n Darwin's h a d . The f i r s t i s c l e a r l y dated

1835,

and it includes i n t h e course of t h e exposi- t i o n , an account of Darwin's view of Moorea from T a h i t i recounted i n t h e Diary f o r 17th November 1835.7 There i s no mention of t h e Cocos-Keeling Island. It thus seems very probable t h a t Darwin wrote t h i s o u t l i n e on t h e voyage between T a h i t i and New Zealand (3rd-21st December 1835), and it

i s therefore a t l e a s t t h r e e months e a r l i e r , and much longer, than the Diary e n t r y f o r 1 2 t h A p r i l 1836, given above.

The o r i g i n a l i s w r i t t e n on s h e e t s of unlined paper

15.6

x 10.15 inches, folded once t o give pages of

7.8

x 10.15 inches. There a r e twelve Such ' s h e e t s ' of four pages, and g e n e r a . 1 1 ~ t h e t e x t i s w r i t t e n on pages 1 aad

3,

with the notes t o each page of t e x t e i t h e r on t h e verso, o r i n the case of page

3,

occasionally opposite o n p . 2 . I n t h e t w e l f t h sheet, page

4

i s a l s o devoted t o t e x t . Each page of t e x t , a p a r t from t h e f i r s t , i s headed

"1835.

Coral I s l a n d s " and t h e text-page number. The note-pages a r e not numbered, and can be r e f e r r e d t o as [la], [2a!

...

The d e t a i l e d composition i s a s follows:

Sheet 1 2 4

3

Page 1

3 5

Text [ l a ] TJotes 2 Text

Text

[3a]

Notes

4

Text

Text [

5a] - 6

Text

Text [

7a] -

8 Text

Text [gal Notes 10 Text Text [ l l a ] Notes 12 Text Text [ 13a] Notes 14 Text Text [ Xl5a] Notes

X l 5

CblText Text

U5a3

Diagrams

16

Text Text [l7a] Notes

18

Text Text

[lga]

Notes 20 Text Text [21a] Motes 22 Text

Motes

- -

Notes

Text, notes Notes

-

Notes Text

The t e x t has c l e a r l y been w r i t t e n i n haste: t h e r e a r e many erasures, l a t e r c a n c e l l a t i o n s i n i n k and p e n c i l , and some r e p e t i t i o n of notes i n t h e t e x t . This seems t o i d i c a G t h a t - Coral I s l a n d s i s Darwin's elm f i r s t f u l l d r a f t of h i s thesry,8 and it i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t it was stimulated by h i s s i g h t of Moorea and i t s e n c i r c l i n g reef,Y even though t h e theory had been slowly formulating since t h e middle of t h e year.

The F a i r Copy i s w r i t t e n on f e i n t - r u l e d foolscap, i n u n i t s of four pages, each

7.8

x 12.5 inches. A s with the o r i g i n a l t h e t e x t i s w r i t t e n on pages 1 and

3

of each u n i t . There a r e a number of p e n c i l l e d comments of a c r i t i c a l nature, some erased, i n a hand o t h e r than Darwin's ( p o s s i b l y FitzRoy Is), with b r i e f answers t o them i n Darwin's hand.

The t e x t presented here-% i s a t r a n s c r i p t of t h e o r i g i n d paper i n Darwin's hand, r e t a i n i n g h i s s p e l l i n g and punctuation. I n t h e absence of any e a r l i e r manuscript on h i s c o r a l r e e f theory, it i s thought t o be t h e f i r s t f u l l statement he ever wrote. The o r i g i n a l and F a i r Cop&are

contained i n Volume 41 of t h e Damsin manuscripts a t Cambridge.

?t- TWO text-pages of t h e Earwin manuscript, with t h e i r running-heads and marginal notes, and with t h e notes r e f e r r i n g t o them, a r e included i n one B u l l e t i n page. The numbers i n

[I

r e f e r t o t h e note-pages, as above. Remarks, o r o t h e r e d i t o r i a l d e t a i l s , furnished by Mr. S - t o d W t a r e a l s o i n

[ I .

Eds.

+M The t h r e e sample pages reproduced here, a c t u a l s i z e , a r e from the o r i g i n a l manuscript (photos furnished by t h e University Library, Cambridge).

I am indebted t o S i r Chazles Darwin f o r permission t o publish t h i s paper, t o the Library of the University of Cambridge f o r access t o the manuscripts, and t o

IvIr.

P. J. Gautrey f o r h i s assistance. D r . Sydney Smith kindly gave me f u r t h e r information on the manuscript and other collections; and Lady Nora Barlow has read the manuscript and given me much encouragement.

Notes

-

1. The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809-1882. With o r i g i n a l omissions restored. Edited by Lady N. Barlow. London,

1958,

253 p. (written i n

1876).

See p.

80.

2. Charles Darwin: On c e r t a i n areas of elevation and subsidence i n the Pacific and Indian Oceans, a s deduced from the study of coral formations.

Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 2, 1837, 552-554. On LyelL's response t o the theory, Autobiography, 1358> pp. 83-84, and 100, and l e t t e r from Lyell t o S i r J. Herschel, May 24th, 1837, in: K. M. Lyell ( e d i t o r ) : Life, l e t t e r s and journals of S i r Charles Lyell, Bart. London, 2 vols,l88l, see Vol. 2, p. 12-13. Compare C. LyeU, Principles of Geology, 1st edition, Chapter X V I I I , Corals and c o r a l reefs, 1832 ( ~ o l . 2, p. 283-301) (and similar accounts i n e d i t i o n s 2,

3, 4,

and

5 )

with Chapter XVIII, Formation of c o r a l reefs, i n Principles,

6th

edition, Vol.

3,

1840, p. 366-406.

3. Charles Darwin: Journal and Researches 1832-1836. ( ~ a r r a t i v e of the surveying voyages of H i s Najesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle, between the years 1826 and

1836 . . . ^,

^Vol.

^3).

London, 1833,

615

p. Charles The s t r u c t u r e and d i s t r i b u t i o n of c o r a l reefs. London, 1842, 214 p.

4. Autobiography, 1958, p. 98-99. See a l s o Professor C. M. Yonge's essay

"Darwin and c o r a l reefs, ^" in: S. A. Barnett, editor, A Century of Darwin.

London, 1358, p. 245-266.

5.

Charles Darwinls Diary of the voyage of HMS Beagle. Edited from the MS by Lady N. Barlow. Cambridge, 1933,

541

p . See p. 400.

6.

I n Lady N. Barlow, e d i t o r : Charles Damin and the voyage of the Beagle. London, 1945, 279 p. See p.

137.

7.

Coral Islands, manuscript, p.

4-5;

compare Diary, 1933 p. 348, and Journal, 1839, p. 484-485.

8. Lady Brlow has described j o t t i n g s outlining the theory i n one of Damrin's f i e l d note-books, probably written i n July

1835;

see Charles Darwin and the voyage of the Beagle, 1945, p. 243-244.

9. "I was much struck with t h i s f a c t [the lack of " e s s e n t i a l .difference bet-treen e n c i r c l i n g b a r r i e r - r e e f s and a t o l l s " ] when viewing, from the heights of Tahiti, the d i s t a n t i s l a n d of Eimeo

. .

^{. I 1} (Structure and

d i s t r i b u t i o n of c o r a l r e e f s , 1842, p.

46).

Also reference i n note

7,

above,

Coral I s l a n d s ( 1

Although I have p e r s o n a l l y s c a r c e l y seen anything of t h e Coral' I s l a n d s i n t h e P a c i f i c k Ocean. I am tempted t o make a few observations r e s p e c t i n g them.-

I n looking a t a c h a r t of t h e E a s t Indian group. it w i l l be seen t h a t a d i r e c t i o n w i t h i n a couple of P o i n t s of NW & SE i s common t o t h e Western

& Eastern Islands.-This l i n e i s continued t o New Ca1edonia.-It i s f r o n t e d

a ) by t h e p a r a l l e l chains of New I r e l a n d . Solomon & Hebrides lslds.- [Perhaps t h e s i m i l a r d i r e c t i o n of t h e North p a r t of New Zealand & t h a t p a r t of New Holland, which i n i t s p o s i t i o n & b a r r i e r of Coral1 r e e f s i s i n t i m a t e l y connected with t h e South sea, may be more t h m an a c c i d e n t a l coincid- ence.

- C1]]

Those small I s l a n d s , which s t r e t c h i n an B. W d i r e c t i o n h a l f way a c r o s s t h e Pacifick, a r e f r e q u e n t l y described a s being a curved p a r t of t h a t Volcanic band of I s l a n d s which terminates Southward a t t h e New Hebrides, o r more p r o p e r l y i n Sew Zealand.-

[ l . This sentence i s d e l e t e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l , and t h e following note i s given on page la:]

( a ) Again we s e e t h e same f a c t i n the northern p a r t of New Zealand; t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of which, l i k e t h e foregoing I s l a n d s , i s e s s e n t i a l l y Volcanic.

-

The XE c o a s t of A u s t r a l i a which i s f r o n t e d by t h e g r e a t b a r r i e r r e e f & so i n t i m a t e l y connected with t h e P a c i f i c k , has a l s o a NW & SE d i r e c t i o n . The whole shore i s b e l i e v e d t o c o n s i s t of G r a n i t i c rocks; a l i t t l e wajr i n l a n d a long chain of h i l l s runs p a r a l l e l t o the c o a s t l i n e .

-

( ~ r F i t t o n ' s Appendix t o King

'

s ~ u s t r a l i a )

* + + * * * * *

Coral I s l a n d s

But I do n o t t h i n k t h i s i s a c o r r e c t view.-In each s e p a r a t e Archi- pelago t h e d i r e c t i o n a l r e a d y a luded t o i s found.- This l a w p r e v a i l s even ( a ) as f a r a s We Sandwich lsGs ( a t - Perhaps t h e s t r o n g e s t exception w i l l be ( b ) discovered i n t h e F r i e n d l y IS$ t h a t i s i f t h e s e axe taken without reference

t o t h e group of t h e F i d j i s . A l l t h e I s l a n d s ought r a t h e r t o be considered a s s o many s h o r t p a r a l l e l l i n e s , than t h e continuation of t h e g r e a t

volcanic band which sweeps round t h e Eastern shores of A s i a . - I have p o i n t e d o u t t h i s f a c t , a s showing a degree o f p h y s i c a l connection i n t h e I s l a n d s of Polynesia. F o r s t e r i n h i s observations i n a Voyage round t h e World. makes t h r e e c l a s s e s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t kinds:

-

( 1 s t ) High I s l a n d s without Coral r e e f s ; he

two o u t of t h e F r i e n d l y

adduces as Examples t h e Marquesas & ~ e b r i d e s . &

Is; t o them may be added t h e Navigators

[ 24 ( a ) I may even add America.

-

( b ) Mem. t h e F r i e n d l y a exception of Value.-

t h e peninsula of C a l i f o r n i a & t h e shores of North f i e l d of modern disturbance. & t h e r e f o r e t h e

1835 Coral ~ s l a n d s ( 3

a s described by Kotzebue. the Sandwich Ba Galapagos groups & s e v e r a L o t h e r smaller ones.- It would be a curious point t o ascertain, whether Coral grows abundantly on t h e shores of any of these Islands, although not forming a reef; o r whether a s a t the Galapagos, it may be considered a s absent.- This one f a c t would alone throw much l i g h t on the t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of a l l the Coral formations.- We know t h a t i n some p a r t s of t h e World where Coral1 is abundant, as i n the West Indies t r u e Lagoon Islands do not occur. 11. High Islands encircled by a reef, a s a p i c t u r e i s by a frame.- t h e s i n g u l a r i t y of t h i s phenomenon, t h e beauty & u i i t y of i t s

la?

( a ) e f f e c t has scarcely been enough i n s i s t e d upon by Voyagers.

-

^Forster

gives an example i n Tahiti, & a l l the t r u e Society Islands, the higher ones of t h e Friendly &

New

Caledonia.- I11 The low h a l f drowned Islands, composed e n t i r e l y of Coral

[3a]

( a ) I t must be borne i n mind, t h a t the l i n e of breakers sweeps round, a t a considerabke distance from the f o o t of the mountains.

-

The i n t e r v a l is occupied by the smooth water of the lagoon & the low a l l u v i a l land.

which has encroached on p a r t s of i t s f o m r bed.-

1835 Coral Islands

4

& including a lagoon.- IV. Capt Beech y has described another c l a s s , such

a s Elizabeth. Savage

*

^Wateo Island,

ra)

which a r e composed of Coral rock, a r e of moderate height, & probably before t h e i r elevation e x i s t e d a s Low or Lagoon Islands.- Capt. Beechey remarks on the r a r i t y of t h i s class.- I suspect however on a more accurate knowledge. several more w i l l be added t o t h i s list. I may perhaps instance Turtle Isd. of Cook. which Forster brings forward as the b e s t example of subterranean elevation i n the

Pacifick.- With respect t o t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , it appears t o me that t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between the I1 & I11 division, o r the high islands with r e e f s

& the Lagoon ones, is a r t i f i c i a l . - I believe the r e e f s and s t r i p s of land,

which compose the c i r c u l a r Low Islands. are of t h e very same s t r u c t u r e &

o r i g i n with those r e e f s which encircle, a s with a b e l t so many of the l o f t y ones.- Viewing t h e E i Meo

[Marginal note, same page ] (a) & Perhaps W d e n of L+. Byron

1835 Coral

IS^?^ 5

f r o m t h e h e i g h t s of T a h i t i I was f o r c i b l y s t n i c k with t h i s opinion.- The mountains a b r u p t l y r i s e out of a g l a s s y lake, which i s separated on a l l sides, by a narrow defined l i n e of breakers, from t h e open sea.- Remove the c e n t r a l group of mountains, & there remains a Lagoon IS$

-

^{I ground}

t h i s opinion from t h e following f a c t s . - There i s a general s i m i l a r i t y i n t h e two cases i n the form &

-

s i z e of t h e r e e f s ; t h e i r s t r u c t u r e appears i d e n t i c a l , we have s c a r c e l y fathomable water i n each case, a t a s h o r t distance on the o u t e r margin; within i s a shallow Sasin more o r l e s s f i l l e d up by k n o l l s of growing Coral1 o r converted i n t o dry land.- I n the Lagoon 1sl+ t h e r e a r e some, which do n o t deserve t h i s t i t l e , f o r they c o n s i s t s o l e l y o c i r c u l a r reef, of which scarcely a p o i n t p r o j e c t s

f a 8

above t h e water; w h i l s t o t h e r s have a more o r l e s s complete, b u t narrow r i n g of dry land.

-

I n the same

[Marginal note, same page] ( a ) Such a s the 1 s t near T u r t l e I.

manner i n t h e e n c i r c l i n g r e e f s , although they generally a r e only ornamented by a few speck formed Islands, y e t a t the f i n e I s l a n d of Huahine E l l i s states t h e reef i s becoming converted i n t o dry land.- The e s s e n t i a l character i n t h e one c l a s s , of a l a r g e e n c i r c l e d I s l d . i t s e l f dwindles away & becomes ambiguous.- We have the 2 l a r g e Islands of R a i a t i a & Taha ( ? ) included i n one r e e f .

-

^In such cases, a s i n Gambier IS$ so well described by Capt Beechey, where a group of small h i l l y

Islands a r e e n c i r c l e d by one grand r e e f , o r a s i n Whylootacke. (seen by the eagle) when one s i n g l e one i s so s i t u a t e d , it becomes a question i n which of the two c l a s s e s they ought t o be arranged.

-

I n t h e

1sd

of Caledonia, as drawn on a l a r g e s c a l e i n Krusenstern's A t l a s , the r e e f w i l l be seen prolonged a t each extremity. & e n c i r c l i n g t h e continuation,

Coral IS$

beneath t h e water of t h e land. It h e r e r e q u i r e s l e s s e f f o r t of imagination t o remove t h e c e n t r a l h i l l s & t o l e a v e a p e r f e c t lagoon IS$

-

t h i s change judging from t h e f i g u r e , it might be b e l i e v e d was a c t u a l l y i n process.- The last argument which I can adduce i s t h e p a r a l l e l i s m between t h e Archipelagoes of t h e two orders, f o r instance t h e l o x ~ I s l a n d & t h e

Society ones.- Moreover, t h i s p a r a l l e l i s m i s found i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e longer a x i s of t h e o v a l f i g u r e , which i s so frequent i n t h e

e n c i r c l i n g r e e f s & low Island:- One i s teznpted t o extend s t i l l f u r t h e r t h i s s i m i l a r i t y & t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e between the r e e f which e n c i r c l e s an Island, & those extraordinary b a r r i e r s of Coral, which f r o n t f o r s o many leagues t h e c o a s t of A u s t r a l i a & I b e l i e v e the r\?orthern shore of B r a z i l . - The high e n c i r c l e d I s d s . a r e composed of various geological formations: no

Coral IS$

doubt a n c i e n t Volcanic rocks a r e most abundant, b u t i n T a h i t i M. Hoffman found Granite. M r . E l l i s s t a t e s . t h a t i n s e v e r a l of t h e Society 1sCS Granite, Hornblendic rock, Limestone & rock with Garnets i s found.

F o r s t e r i n New Gal-edonia describes t h e prevalent rock under the name of Gestele s t e i n , which I b e l i e v e t o be Mica S l a t e . - Hence we may f e e l secure ( i f any dogbts could have been e n t e r t a i n e d ) t h a t these e n c i r c l i n g r e e f s a r e n o t b u i l t on t h e c r e s t s of submarine C r a t e r s . - I f t h e proofs of t h e i d e n t i t y i n nature of t h e two kinds of r e e f s , a r e considered a s conclusive, i n a l i k e manner, t h e r e i s no n e c e s s i t y t h a t t h e Lagoon Isd.

should be based on such C r a t e r s . This view w i l l I think, g e n e r a l l y be more s a t i s f a c t o r y , it removes t h e d i f f i c u l t y of t h e irrrmense s i z e of t h e Lagoons f a r exceeding any known C r a t e r : & explains t h e extreme

i r r e g u l a r i t y of f i g u r e . exemplified i n t h e Radack

Coral 1sCS

& Ralix groups, described by Kotzebue. Whether we look a t t h e s e I s l a n d s .

a s having formerly e n c i r c l e d high land, o r r e s t i n g on t h e brim of a C r a t e r , [I] it appears t o me, we must admit, t h e t h e o r y of Jlr Lyell, t h a t t h e i r

p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r e i s owing t o a s e r i e s of small depressions.- I f t h e ground on which t h e Lithophytes have hilt t h e i r e d i f i c e s has n o t subsided. it must have remained s t a t i o n a r y o r been e l e v a t e d . [ I t being allowed t h a t t h e Coral1 animal can f l o u r i s h only a t a small depth. it ( a ) follows, on t h e f i r s t supposition, t h a t a l l t h e su5marine mountains

w i t h i n t h i s l i m i t had t h e samy h e i g h t & tha.t not one r a i s e d i t s head ( a ) above t h e l e v e l of t h e s e a . [ 2 ~ ] On t h e second supposition. of a s e r i e s

of e l e v a t i o n s ; t h e s e movements over a l a r g e t r a c t of ocean, ceased. &

never exceeded t h e limits a l r e a d y pointed o u t .

-

Now, t h e s e consequences

from t h e two suppositions, a r e s o very improbable: ( f o r i f they a r e n o t so,we

[ l . Marginal note:] Vol I1 Chapt: X V I I I

[2. This sentence i s dele2ed i n t h e o r i g i n a l , and t h e following note i s given on page ga:]

( a ) On t h e f i r s t of t h e s e suppositions. it being allowed. t h a t t h e Coral animal can only f l o u r i s h a t a small depth, it follows t h a t submarine mountains, on which t h e Coral i s nov growing. reached w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of such depth, t h e surface, b u t y e t t h a t n o t one peak e v e r r a i s e d i t s head above t h i s l e v e l . -

might expect t o f i n d somewhere a t r a c t o f country with mountains of an e q u a l h e i g h t ) t h a t t o my mind t h e evidence of subsidence t h e only remaining supposition i s demonstrative.- No doubt t h e f o u r t h c l a s s o f I s l a n d s , t h e r a i s e d Coral rock, i s an argument on t h e o t h e r s l d e ; b u t t h e i r acknowledged r a r i t y appears t o me a proof t h a t they ought r a t h e r t o be considered a s exceptions o r i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e p r e v a i l i n g movement. If a gradual upheaval w a s i n progress here, a s on t h e shores of S, America. t h e C o r a l ~ r o u l d a f f o r d a more palpable and l a s t i n g evidence, than could be expected under any o t h e r circumstances.- Capt.

FitzRoy has discovered an i n t e r e s t i n g t r a d i t i o n amongst t h e Low I s l a n d e r s , t h a t t h e a r r i v a l of t h e f i r s t Ship. was followed n o t long afterwards by a g r e a t inundation which destroyed meny people.- Earthquakes are

o c c a s i o n a l l y experienced here; a t T a h i t i t h e r e happened one which w a s b e l i e v e d t o have f o r e t o l d t h e a r r i v a l of t h e f i r s t Missionaries.

c o r a l IS$ 11

I looked i n vain on t h e shores of T a h i t i f o r any s o r t of evidence of a consequent r i s e .

-

I n t h e Polynesian t r a d i t i o n s ( ~ l l i s e s Researches ) t h e r e a r e accounts of deluges, which e v i d e n t l y were accompanied by Volcanic phenomena.- The d i f f i c u l t y i n understanding t h e cause o f a r e e f of l i v i n g Coral, being separated by channels o r l a k e s from t h e l a n d . has not a s y e t . been attempted t o be removed. The only explanation. which I can o f f e r . i s ( a ) c h i e f l y c o n j e c t u r a l . a

-

when a t T a h i t i I examined t h e r e e f .

-

^{I found on}

(B)

t h e e x t e r i o r margin, a s o l i d broard [ s i c ] (30-50 y a r d s ? ) mound of Coral ( A ) rock, s t r i k i n g l y resembling an a r t i f i c i a l ( b u t low) breakwater. on which

t h e s u r f b e a t with violence.- The surface of t h e mound i s compact &

( C ) smooth.

-

I t i s s l i g h t l y curved & d i p s towards t h e i n s i d e o r smooth water of t h e Harbor. Owing t o t h e s u r f . I could not examine t h e o u t e r margin;

I am t o l d it c o n s i s t s of

[ l l a ] ( a ) I t r e s t s on a b e l i e f t h a t t h e s p e c i e s of Coral, most efficient i n b u i l d i n g a r e e f , f l o u r i s h b e s t when immersed i n t h e s u r f of t h e o u t e r breakers, & t h a t t h e i r grov-th i s checked by sediment & f r e s h water

brought down from t h e c e n t r a l l a n d . -

1835

c o r a l IS' 1 2

smooth ledges of l i v i n g Coral, & t h a t i t s general i n c l i n a t i o n i s g r e a t :

-

I t i s only on r a r e occasions, when t h e r e happens t o be very l i t t l e s u r f - -

8 a low t i d e t h a t t h e l i v i n g - p a r t s can be seen. Rot unfrequently a f t e r g a l e s of wind, t h e ledges (probably overhanging) a r e t o r n up & i n

enormous masses thrown far up on t h e r e e f : By t h i s ineans a l s o t h e Natives know t h e e x t e r i o r margin i s thus c o n s t i t u t e d . The c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e breaknater i s e n t i r e l y dead; on i t s surface t h e c h i e f production i s an e n c r u s t i n g i n a r t i c u l a t e C o r a l l i n a . The sea: breaking v i o l e n t l y on t h e o u t e r margin, continuouslypmps over i n s h e e t s t h e water of i t s waves.- hence t h e s u r f a c e i s worn smooth & g e n t l y d e c l i n e s towards t h e lagoon.- I w a s assured t h a t on t h e r a r e occasions, a l l u d e d to, t h e c e n t r a l p a r t i s exposed, uncovered t o t h e r a y s of t h e sun, & t h a t t h i s i n v a r i a b l y k i l l s ( a ) t h e animal, & leaves t h e Lithophyte dead rock.

(a>

[12a] ( a ) There must however be some process by which t h e mound i s r e p a i r e d : i f once worn away so deeply as always t o be covered by t h e water, t h e case becomes a t once similar t o t h e o u t e r p a r t s ; perhaps

t h e C o r a l l i n a s & o t h e r small Masine productions may p r o t e c t t h e s u r f a c e . -

T h i s r e v i s e d v e r s i o n of t h e s k e t c h on Darwin's page 11

o c c u r s on a s e p a r a t e p i e c e of paper i n s e r t e d i n t h e F a i r Copy.

The hole r e e f may be described, a s c o n s i s t i n g of two p a r t s : the outer margin of t h e Breakwater, t h e s o l i d p a r t of which i s higher than a l l the r e s t , & a t r a c t of very shallow water which varys i n width from LOO yards t o a mile. I n t h i s low p a r t there a r e l i t t l e narrow t v i s t i n g channels &

holes of deep water, & on the o t h e r hand many p o i n t s . where the Coral reaches t o the surface. It i s i n t h i s s t i l l water where a n observer a s has o f t e n been described, may watch t h e f i s h g l i d i n g amongst groves of variously coloured Corals. This p a r t of the reef seldom o r never i s d i r e c t l y joined t o the shores: but t h e r e i s l e f t channels & harbors where a Ship can anchor i n a f i n e Sandy bottom.- I imagine it i s t h e f r e s h water & sediment brought do1.m. which helps t o prevent these spaces being f i l l e d up & likewise perhaps the cause t h a t these r e e f s a r e seldomer ( a ) converted i n t o s t r i p e s of dry land. than i n the Lagoon

lsdS-

^{I n the}

shallow p a r t s the most abundant kind of Lithopbytes, a r e stony & branching, generas ( a s )

.

Also Fungia G Caryophillia

p 3 a ] ( a ) ' . e n such does happen. t h a t p a r t close within the breakwater would from the fragments t h r o ~ m over it, be soonest changed.- there a l s o the water i s pure & f i t f o r the growth of some kinds of Coralls.

-

1835

c o r a l lsd 14

Showing them t o some i n t e l l i g e n t n a t i v e s I t m s assured t h a t such kinds never grow on the outside of the r e e f o r compose s o l i d r e e f s . - From t h e i r descriptions. I imagined the prevalent kinds, so s i t u a t e d a r e such as P o r i t e s . Millepora. & some Meandrina & Astrea. Anyhow they appeared t o

consider t h a t there i s a wide distincti.on i n the two cases. A~alogy. from t h e h a b i t s of a l l o t h e r marine animals would l e a d one t o suppose t h a t t h e same species would not f l o u r i s h i n two such d i f f e r e n t l o c a l i t i e s , as the foam of f u r i o u s breakers. & shallow p l a c i d lakes. If t h i s opinion should be granted. it would be very important; we might i n f e r t h a t those species. which b u i l d t h e e x t e r n a l s o l i d wall, the h i p a e s t & most p e r f e c t p a r t of t h e Coral1 rock, w i l l only f l o u r i s h where the waters break

v i o l e n t l y . M. Quoy & Gaimard, s t a t e , " t h a t the species, which constantly formed t h e most extensive banks, belong t o t h e genera. Meandrina,

Caryophyllia. & Astrea" & t h a t the Saxigenous polypi increase most considerably i n shallow & q u i e t water. I am not aware whether they suppose, these same species form the o u t e r p a r t s of t h e r e e f s .

n.

marginal n o t e : ] D. L. Beche

With respect t o t h e r a t i o of increase I have a few remarks t o o f f e r . - I n the g r e a t e r number of the Lagoon IS* from t h e arguments already used, it i s c l e a r no movement of e l e v a t i o n has taken p l a c e . - Now Capt. Beechey 'remarks, t h a t the s t r i p s of dry Coral, divested of any loose sandy

m a t e r i a l s heaped upon them a r e r a r e l y elevated more than 2 f t above t h e l e v e l of t h e sea. Now whatever t h i s e l e v a t i o n may be, it i s c l e a r , t h a t the highest p o i n t of t h e l i v i n g Coral rock i s i n any IS$ as high o r

higher than the dead. Because t h e dead. l i v e d under s i m i l a r circumstances ZC may have s ~ f f e r e d degradation.- Now t h i s q u a n t i t y i s so much higher than t h e l e v e l of the ocean & therefore than the waters of the Lagoon, which must a f f o r d t h e n e w e s t approximation t o judge by.- Hence t h e Coral, which has formed t h e s t r i p s of dry land, could not have been cherished by those q u i e t waters, b u t r a t h e r i n t h e turbulence of the breakers, where a surface above t h e mean

l e v e l . would never remain uncovered & exposed t o t h e rays of the

sun.(^)-

I n those cases where t r u e Coral rock i bove t h e l e v e l of the Lagoon.

( a ) the land must have increased oui-mards; fa7 but a s it appears from the extreme depth. beyond the r e e f , t h a t t h i s can hardly be a general process. I suspect t h a t Coral rock may o f t e n be d i f f i c u l t t o be distinguished from a rock of cemented fragments.- Besides the g r e a t e r

absolute height of t h e Coral which grows i n the s u r f , it mst be remembered, t h a t yearly g a l e s of wind, t e a r o f f l a r g e fragments, some of which a r e tossed on t h e r e e f & o t h e r s must f a l l down i n t o the surrounding depths.

Yearly t h e Polypus has t o replace t h i s damage.- On t h e other hand, within the lagoon a l l d e t r i t u s accumvlates, & if a s according t o M. Quoy and Gaimard. t h e Coral grows t h e r e a l s o most rapidly; how comes i t t h a t t h e Lagoon i s n o t more commonly f i l l e d up? This i s t h e more s u r p r i s i n g . if we look a t t h e e n t i r e s e c t i o n of a Lagoon I s l a n d i n Capt. Eeechey. ^& see how t r i f l i n g t h e i n e q u a l i t y of t h e foundation

X X X

[xl5a:]

( x ) This conclusion p e r f e c t l y agrees with what was v i s i b l e i n the r e e f of T a h i t i .

[ x l ~ c : ] ( a ) a s appears t o have been t h e case. on the IS'? on which Capt.

Beechey found t h e remains of the wreck of t h e Matilda so very s i n g u l a r l y s i t u a t e d .

[TIote on verso of Leaf 11 i n F a i r Copy:] I n s e r t t h i s a s a note s t a t i n g my previous formed opinion.

Note

-

May not earthquake waves be occasional agents?- May not the wreck of the Matilda have been thrown inshore by a g r e a t wave?- Such an event happening once i n a century- a s a t Lima o r Concepcion

-

would hardly be known t o t h e few Europeans who have y e t examined Polynesia.

XXX Iw5c

1

r e a l l y i s . And we must a l s o bear i n mind t h a t arguments can be advanced t o show t h a t the subsidences must happen a f t e r long i n t e r v a l s . - such as few proportionate numbers of submerged c i r c u l a r r e e f s ; & again t h e q u a n t i t y

-

of d e t r i t u s heaped up on t h e dry Coral.- The general t e n o r of t h e f o r e - going f a c t s , s t r o n g l y urges me t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e Coral, most e f f e c t i v e i n forming t h e s o l i d r e e f , w i l l only f l o u r i s h near t o t h e break of t h e Sea.- I w i l l not pretend t o conjecture concerning t h e cause of t h i s p r e d i l i c t i o n , whether t h e motion of t h e f l u i d , o r t h e q u a n t i t y of

insolvedC1l a i r . i s favourable; o r whether t h e l i g h t and heat, which must pervade s t i l l shoal water i s i n j u r i o u s t o t h e grow-bh of t h e i r Species.-

[l. I n t h e F a i r Copy, insolved i s rendered intangled.]

3C ?C

* * * * *

1835

^{Coral I S ~ S}

[ r e s p e c t t o t h e r a t i o of increase, it must be remembered, t h a t a l l t h e Coral. which grows within t h e lagoon. accumulates. whereas on t h e outside y e a r l y l a r g e fragments are t o r n o f f & c a r r i e d away. The Polypi have t o r e p a i r a l l t h i s damage. On t h e supposition t h a t t h e dimensions of t h e r e e f o r i s l a n d do n o t decrease. (which a t l e a s t w i l l be granted), t h e polypi must y e a r l y r e p a i r t h i s darnage.Cl1

1 -

^If then t h e two following p o s t u l a t e s are allowed, much of t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n understanding t h e C o r d formation.

w i l l I think, be removed.

-

( l S t ) That i n c e r t a i n p a r t s of t h e Pacifick, a s e r i e s of subsidences have taken place; of which no

one

exceeded i n depth, t h e nuniber of f t , a t which saxigenous polypi w i l l f l o u r i s h : & of which s e r i e s , t h e i n t e r v a l s between t h e successive s t e p s . were s u f f i c i e n t l y long t o allow of t h e i r growth, always bringing t o t h e same l e v e l t h e upper s u r f a c e of t h e r e e f .

-

(2nd) That those species of Lithophytes, which

b u i l d t h e o u t e r . s o l i d w a l l , f l o u r i s h

[l. These two sentences d e l e t e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l , and t h e i r substance expanded i n t h e two pagmmarked

X 1 5

and i n [X15c], c l e a r l y added after t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e t e x t was written.]

1835

Coral IS d

16 ( a ) best, where the sea v i o l e n t l y breaks.

-

Better t o explain my views, I w i l l take the case of an Island s i t u a t e d i n a p a r t of the ocean. which we w i l l suppose a t l a s t becomes favourable t o the growth of Coral1.- The circumstances which determine the presence o r absence of the Saxigenous Polypi a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y obscure, but they do not e n t e r i n t o t h i s discussion.- kt AB represent the slope of an Island so circumstanced & CD the l e v e l of t h e ocean. Then Coral1 would immediately commence t o grow on the shore (D) & would extend Sea-ward a s f a r a s the depth of water. would permit i t s r i s i n g from the bottom.- Let t h i s point be

(H).-

The breadth of the reef (HD) would then depend, on the angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of the bottom.- This space might e i t h e r be converted i n t o a piece of Alluvial ground, o r even, from the Coral1 springing up v e r t i c a l l y from E & so protecting the inner space, might e x i s t a s a Lagoon.-

[16a] (a) This second Post: i s not so necessary a s the f i r s t : a s w i l l be subsequently seen.- Possibly the f a c t of the Windward s i d e of the low Islands, where the surf generally i s most violent, being the highest &

most perfect. may be p a r t l y explained by such an admission.-

This reef would however e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r from those i n the South Sea, i n the depth of the water. ( I exclude any few exceptions) beyond the W a l l not suddenly becoming excessive.- I f the l e v e l of t h i s Island should remain stationasy. I cannot imagine any change.- But i f the land should be raised. ( o r sea s i n k ) : the o u t l i n e would be a s represented by the dotted l i n e . - And on the shores. a fringe of Dry Coral rock would be l e f t : This circumstance i s known t o happen i n the East & West Indian ^IS$'- Some such f a c t , m y perhaps explain the double r e e f s found by Capt. Beechey a t Loo Choo, one of which was dead & one l i v i n g . - Now i f we suppose the land gradua3.1~ t o subside (See Fig. 11. I have represented the water r i s i n g ; the e f f e c t of course is the same) the l e v e l of the s e a w i l l stand a t C 1 instead of a t CD.

-

The Coral of the o ter w a l l favoured by the heavy s u r f .

( aY

( a ) w i l l soon recover i t s former l e v e l .

-

^If t h i s process.

[17a] ( a ) or the whole m y be supposed t o have same tendency t o grow up &

recovers its former l e v e l : but t h a t the sediment &c from the land checks i t s growth.

Coral 1 ~ 6 s

i s repeated each time t h e s e a w i l l gain on t h e l a n d while. t h e r e e f r i s e s , n e a r l y v e r t i c a l l y on i t s f i r s t foundation.- I say n e a r l y v e r t i c a l l y ,

because, m y & e v e q small p o r t i o n removed i n f r o n t of t h e lower p a r t

--

&.

t h e b u i l d i n g being continued upwards b e f o r e i t s r e p a i r , t h i s must throw

backwards t h e whole of t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e . When t h e l e v e l s t a n d s a t ( ~ 3 ) ~ t h e space between t h e r e e f s & t h e land, w i l l be more, t h a n twice a s

broard a s a t f i r s t . This space w i l l probably be occupied by a l a k e of water. such s t i l l water. n o t being favourable t o t h e growth of t h e most e f f i c i e n t s p e c i e s of C o r a l . - 1 may mention t h a t when a t f i r s t t h e r e e f touched t h e shcre. i n t h e mouth of each stream. t h e r e must have been a channel.- such openings. during t h e l o n g e s t s e r i e s of depressions. would be continued & hence would g e n e r a l l y

( a ) f a c e the v a l l e y s , a s i s observed t o be t h e case.a- This explanation i s r e f e r r i b l e t o those r e e f s wb.ich f r o n t a c o n t i n e n t o r e n c i r c l e an I s l a n d . - If t h e subsidences a r e continued, till by t h e encroachment of t h e water an I s l a n d i s reduced from i a r g e t o small ^& i s a t l a s t t o t a l l y submerged;

then t h e r e w i l l remain a t r u e Lagoon Is.- When viewing E i meo, o r t h e d9 c h a r t of New Caledonia. I t a l k e d of removing t h e c e n t r a l mass of h i l l s , t h i s was t h e process I was considering. I f t h e above hypothesis, a l l i t s ( b ) p a r t s considered together, i s considered even a s p a r t i a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y

( f o r I a m aware s e v e r a l o b j e c t i o n s can be r a i s e d a g a i n s t i t ) it w i l l be ~ ? o r t h while t o f o l l o w o u t some o f t h e more extended consequences. I n those p a r t s of t h e world, where a genera movement upwards

i

i s i n progress, we ought not t o f i n d groups of Lagoon Is. o r t h a t c l a s s of r e e f s . which e n c i r c l e s t h e l a n d a t a d i s t a n c e ^& has very deep water c l o s e t o t h e o u t e r wall. How far t h i s i s a c t u a l l y t h e case I have n o t

[lga] ( a ) These channels would g e n e r a l l y have about t h e same depth as t h e lagoons; t h e i r bottoms being f i l l e d up with sand o r d e t r i t u s . - The a c t i o n o f c u r r e n t s would prevent t h e i r t o t a l f i l l i n g up.-

( b ) I must observe t h a t i n t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e s e r i e s of subsidences, t h e r e can be l i t t l e doubt t h a t t h e fresh-water Sc sediment, brought down from t h e c e n t r a l land, would be i n j u r i o u s t o t h e growth of t h e Coral w i t h i n t h e r e e f .

-

But when a Lagoon I s l a n d was once formed, (excepting t h e p r e j u d i c e caused by t h e accumulated sediment, a s a s l i p p e r y

foundation) we must look t o t h e o t h e r reasons as an explanation of t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e i n e q u a l i t y i n growth.

-

1835 c o r a l

isdS

²⁰

s u f f i c i e n t d a t a t o judge. I n t h e Vest Indies, where proofs of r e c e n t e l e v a t i o n a r e abundant, r e e f s of t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e not found. o r a t l e a s t a r e n o t common.- V i t h i n t h e E a s t Indian I s l a n d s , t h e shores of which a r e f r e q u e n t l y . o v e r l a i d with r a t s e d Coral rock, I b e l i e v e l i k e w i s e t h e y (a) a r e n o t found.- I n t h e P a c i f i c k I may adduce t h e Sandwich IS$- It w i l l be

i n t e r e s t i n g t o discover. whether those groups ( o u r f i r s t c l a s s ) which are n o t p r o t e c t e d by r e e f s , but y e t have Coral1 abundant on t h e i r shores can ( B ) be proved t o have been r e c e n t l y elevated.B- If such g e n e r a l l y i s t h e case,

it w i l l give much p r o b a b i l i t y t o t h e idea, t h a t -tihe d i r e c t i o n of t h e movemmt determines t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e reef.- It i s manifest t h a t a Lagoon I s d . might be r a i s e d s t r i f l e , by an o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e g e n e r a l movement v i t h o u t i t s c h a r a c t e r being l o s t . - This appears t o have happened [l] a t ' l h r t l e IS$ (cook), which F o r s t e r b r i n g s f o r ~ w d a s t h e b e s t i n s t a n c e

of subterranean upheaval i n t h e P a c i f i c k . - P l a n t s a r e described on t h e r e e f a s growing on t h e dead Coral, whicn i s r a i s e d above t h e

[l. marginal note: J (P.

147)

[20a] ( a ) How a r e t h e Ladrones (which have dead Coral on t h e s u r f a c e ) ? V. Kotzebue I1 Vol.

-

V. some l a r g e Chart. Kotzebue g i v e s no information on t h e s u b j e c t . - Note ( B ) M r . Bennet informs me t h a t i n t h e New Hebrides, which are t h u s

circumstanced he found dead c o r a l a t an e l e v a t i o n of 1500 f t . - Vide Wanderings i n !Jew S. Vales

Coral Is. 21

reach o f high water.- y e t t h i s I s l a n d appears t o have r e t a i n e d i t s proper f i g u r e . If however such movements were continued, no doubt an I s d of our f o u r t h c l a s s would be produced.- Now it i s remarkable, t h a t o u t of t h e few i n s t a n c e s of t h i s C l a s s given by Capt. Beechey, two of t h e s e I s l a n d s a r e surrounded by reefs of growing Coral, b u t t h e s e a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e shore, not being s e p a r a t e d by channels o r l a k e s of water. I a l l u d e t o ( a ) Henderson I described by Capt Beechey himself & Wateo by Cook.

-

On t h e opposite supposition of a g e n e r a l progressive subsidence i n any p a r t of t h e World ( o f course I include only those favourable t o t h e growth (b) of c o r a l ) we should expect t o f i n d e i t h e r o r both ;Lagoon 1sdS & t h e

e n c i r c l i n g r e e f s . - The a r c h i p e l a g o of t h e S o c i e t y

I?

⁽ which a r e e n c i r c l e d )

& Is i n

a

h a t of t h e Low IS$ occur i n t h e same p a r t o f t h e ocean. a l i k e manner are d i v i d e d i n t o t h e same two s o r t s of groups.- A s

-

The F r i e n d l y d e c i s i v e evidence of depressions of

F

21a] ( a ) V. Byron f o r s t r u c t u r e o f Malden IS@-

b ) V. Chart o f t h e B a r r i e r o f E a s t e r n A u s t r a l i a , a r e t h e r e i n that d i s t r i c t any lagoon IS@?-

Note

-

c o r a l lsd 22

l e v e l . w i l l almost always be d e f i c i e n t : a l l t h a t we can look t o i s t h a t t h e r e i s no evidence of an opposite tendency. Now a g a i n s t t h i s . a f l a g r a n t instance. can be brought up. from M r . E l l i s ' account of t h e Society Is.- d He s t a t e s , t h a t on t h e mountains of R a i a t i a , Coral & e h e l l s &c a r e found. I do n o t c l e a r l y understand t h a t he himself has examined i n t o t h e circumstances. Perhaps they may be i n t e r s t r a t i f i e d with t h e Lavas & only p o i n t out a very a n c i e n t e l e v a t i o n . - From the mineralogical nature of t h e strata i n T a h i t i I f e l t no doubt, b u t what they had formerly been

submerged beneath t h e Sea.

-

To a l l such general views, a s these, many exceptions, may always be expected t o be found; t o a s c e r t a i n t h e i r t r u t h , a f a r more extended e x m i n a t i o n of a l l t h e phenomena, i s a b s o l u t e l y necessary. I f t h e r e a l i t y of them should ever be proved, it would be

important t o Geology. For then we might assume t h a t groilps of Lagoon lsd c l e a r l y shoved t h a t a chain of Mountains had t h e r e sub-

[l: marginal note] V. E l l i s Vol. 1 P. 389

C22a

I

-sided.- And, when i n any formation t h e r e should be found, a g r e a t

thiclkness composed of Coral ^& t h e genera of which resembled those, which now b u i l d t h e r e e f s , we might a i s o conclude. t h a t during i t s successive accumulation, t h e general movement, was one of depression.-

Before f i n a l l y concluding t h i s subject, I may remark t h a t t h e general h o r i z o n t a l uplif'ting which I have proved has ^& i s now r a i s i n g upwards t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of S. America & a s it would appear likewise of PI. America, would of n e c e s s i t y be compensated by an equal subsidence i n some o t h e r p a r t of t h e world.- Does not t h e g r e a t e x t e n t of t h e Northern

& Southern Pacificlr include t h i s corresponding Area?- Humboldt c w r y s a

s i m i l a r idea s t i l l f'urther; I n t h e Fragmens Asiatiques, P 95. he says.

"Par c o n s e ~ u e n t l'epoque de l ' a f f a i s e m e n t de l l A s i e occidentale coincide p l u t o t avec c e l l e de l'exhaussement du p l a t e a u de l ' I r a n , du p l a t e a u de 1'Asie c e n t r a l e , de l'Himalaya, du Kuen Lun, du Thia-n shan & de tous l e s anciens systemes de montages d i r i g e s de l ' e s t a I ' o u e s t ; peut e t r e a u s s i c e l l e de llexhaussement du Caucau, & du noeud de montagnes de 1'Armenie B de Erzeroum. "[I]

[?. The following t r a n s l a t i o n , found on a s i n g l e s h e e t i n Darwin papers, Vol.

42,

f o l i o 23, i s t r a n s c r i b e d i n t h e f i n a l paragraph of t h e F a i r Copy:

l

Humboldt ( ~ r a g m e n s Asiatiques Page

95)

i n a similar manner considers t h a t t h e epoch of t h e sinking down of Western Asia coincides with t h e elevation of t h e platforms, of Iran, of c e n t r a l Asia, of t h e Himalaya, of Kuen Lun, of Thian Chan, and of a l l t h e a n c i e n t systems o f Mountains, d i r e c t e d from East t o Vest.

Appendix: Works r e f e r r e d t o by Charles Darwin

In 'Coral I s l a n d s ' Darwin makes reference t o some fourteen books and papers, l i s t e d below. It i s probable t h a t n o t a l l of t h e s e were c a r r i e d on t h e Beagle, and t h e references derive from o t h e r sources. For example, Damin d i d n o t r e a d o t h e r languages with ease, and h i s knowledge of t h e work of Quoy and Gaimard almost c e r t a i n l y derives from De l a Beche's

'Geological Manual.' To t r a c e the books r e l e v a n t t o t h e c o r a l work which Darwin a c t u a l l y had with him during t h e voyage, we have t h e evidence of h i s own writings, i n t h e 'Autobiography, ' L i f e and L e t t e r s ,

'

and 'More L e t t e r s '

-

which together mention only Humboldt, Lyell and a "small volume"

of Milton

-

together with t h e books remaining i n h i s l i b r a r y a t t h e time of h i s death, and l i s t e d i n t h e following two publications:

H. V. Rutherford. 1908. Catalogue of the l i b r a r y of Charles Darwin now i n t h e Botany School, Cambridge. Cambridge, University Press, 91.

Books received i n t h e University Library from Down House, March-May 1961. Cambridge, University Library, mimeographed (29 p. )

.

Two books were pre-eminent i n h i s c o l l e c t i o n : L y e l l ' s ' P r i n c i p l e s of Geology1 and Humboldt's 'Pereonal n a r r a t i v e of t r a v e l s t o t h e equinoc- t i a l regions of t h e New Continent.' The f i r s t e d i t i o n of t h e ' P r i n c i p l e s , ' used on t h e voyage, i s now a t Cambridge, t o g e t h e r with e d i t i o n s

5, 6, 7, 9,

1 0 and 11, a l l from Darwin's l i b r a r y . Volume 1 (1830) i s i n s c r i b e d

"Given me by

/

^{Capt F. R/} C . Darwin;" Volume 2 (1832), containing t h e chapter on c o r a l r e e f s , has on t h e f l y l e a f "Charles Darwin

/

^{M. Video}

IYoveG 1832." The copy of t h e 'Fersonal N a r r a t i v e ' i s t h e English t r a n s l a - t i o n by H. M. W i l l i a m s , London 1819-20,

6

volumes i n

7,

and i s inscribed:

"J. S. Henslow t o h i s f r i e n d C. Darwin on h i s departure from England upon a voyage round the world. 2 1 sepr

1831. "

Both volumes a r e annotated. I n t h e c o r a l reef chapter of Lyell, " P r i n c i p l e s , ' Volume 2, it i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o s e e t h a t t h e paragraph i n which "subsidence by earthquakes" i s advocated t o account f o r t h e form of a t o l l s has been scored.

In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e works, t o which Darwin made frequent apprecia- t i v e references i n h i s l e t t e r s and 'Autobiography,' he probably a l s o had with him Humboldt's 'Fragmens de g&ologie e t de climatolagie asiatiq.uesl

( h i s admiration f o r t h e author overcoming h i s repugnance f o r French);

Captain Beechey 's 'Narrative,

'

a much annotated copy being preserved i n t h e Cambridge c o l l e c t i o n ; and F o r s t e r ' s 'Observations,' a l s o a t Cambridge and quoted i n 'Coral I s l a n d s .

'

^It is c l e a r from 'Coral I s l a n d s ' t h a t a number of volumes which a r e no longer i n h i s l i b r a r y were a l s o taken on t h e Beagle : c h i e f l y Kotzebue ' s 'Voyage;

'

E l l i s 's 'Polynesian Researches;

'

Bennett's 'Wanderings i n New South Wales;' Byron's 'Voyage;' and King's 'Narrative.

'

^De l a Beche's 'Researches i n t h e o r e t i c a l geology,

'

1834, i s i n t h e l i b r a r y , b u t n o t t h e 'Geological Manual,

' 1831,

which w a s probably used during t h e voyage. have t h e evidence of FitzRoy t h a t a copy of b u s e n s t e r n ' s ' A t l a s ' was c a r r i e d on t h e Beagle.

One f u r t h e r r e l e v a n t volume i n t h e l i b r a r y , which may have been taken on t h e voyage, is P l a y f a i r ' s ' I l l u s t r a t i o n s of t h e Huttonian Theory,

'

1802.

From t h e p o i n t of view of 'Coral I s l a n d s , ' however, it i s c l e a r t h a t Lyell, Beechey, Kotzebue, F o r s t e r and De l a Beche were Darwin's

main sources, t o g e t h e r with a c o l l e c t i o n of voyages and t r a v e l s now f o r g o t t e n . The complete l i s t i s a s follows:

Beche,

B.

T. de l a . 1831. A g e o l o g i c a l manual. London, T r e u t t e l and N k t z . 535 p.

Bcechey, F. W. 1832. Narrative of a voyage t o t h e P a c i f i c and Beering's S t r a i t , t o co-operate with t h e p o l a r expeditions: performed i n His t h j e s t y ' s Ship Blossom, under t h e command of Captain F. W. Beechey, R. FJ., F. R. S. &c. i n t h e y e a r s 1825, 26, 27, 28. Philadelphia, Carey and Lea. 493 p. ( T ~ F S e d i t i o n i n Darwin's l i b r a r y , a n n o t a t e d ) . Bennett, George. 1834. idanderings i n New South Wales, Batavia, P e d i r

Coast, Singapore, and China; being t h e journal of a n a t u r a l i s t i n those c o u n t r i e s , during 1832, 1833, and 1834. London, R. Bentley. Volume 1, 440 9. Volume 2, 428 p.

Byron, George Anson, 7 t h Baron. 1826. Voyage of H. M. S. Blonde t o t h e Sandwich I s l a n d s , i n t h e y e a r s 1824-25. Captain t h e Right Hon. Lord Byron, Commander. London, John Murray. 260 p.

Chamisso, Adelbert vcn. 1821. Renarks and opinion;; of t h e n a t u r a l i s t of t h e expedition: i n , Ibtzebue, Voyage, Volume 2, p. 349-433; Volume 3, P. 1-318, and 331-336.

E l l i s , William. 1829. Polynesian researches, during a residence of n e a r l y six years on t h e South Sea I s l a n d s ; including d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e n a t u r a l h i s t o r y and scenery of t h e i s l a n d s

-

with remarks on t h e h i s t o r y , mythology, t r a d i t i o n s , government, arts, manner, and customs of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . London, F i s h e r , Son and Jackson. Volume 1, 536 p.

Vohme 2,

576

p.

F i t t o n , W. H. 1827. An account of some g e o l o g i c a l specimens, c o l l e c t e d by Captain P. P. King, i n h i s Survey of t h e Coasts of A u s t r a l i a , and by Robert Brown, E,sq., on t h e Shores of t h e Gulf of Carpentaria, during t h e voyage of Captain F l i n d e r s : in, King, A u s t r a l i a , Volume 2, p.

566-630.

F o r s t e r , J. R.

1778.

Obse,rvations made during a voyage round t h e world, on p h y s i c a l geography, n a t u r a l h i s t o r y and e t h i c philosophy. Londor,, G. Robinson,

649

p.

Humboldt, Alexander von. 1831. Fragmens de geologic e t de c l i m a t ~ l o g ~ e a s i a t i q u e s , p a r A. de Humboldt. P a r i s , Gide. Volume 1, 309 p. Volume 2, p. 310-640.

King, P. P. 1827. Narrative o f a survey of t h e i n t e r t r o p i c a l and western c o a s t s of A u s t r a l i a . Performed between t h e years

1818

and 1822. London.

Volmie 1,

451

p. Volume 2,

637

p.

Ibtzebue, Otto von. 1821. A voyage of discovery, i n t o t h e South Sea and Beering's S t r a i t s , f o r t h e purpose o f e x p i o r i n g a n o r t h - e a s t passage, undertaken i n t h e y e a r s 1815-1818, a t t h e expense of H i s Highness t h e Chancellor o f t h e Empire, Count Romanzoff, i n t h e s h i p Rurick, under t h e command o f t h e Lieutenant i n t h e Russian Imperial Navy, Otto von Kotzebue. London, Longman, Hurst. Volume 1, 358 p. Volume 2,

433

p.

Volume

3,

442 p.

b u s e n s t e r n , A. I. von. 1826-27. A t l a s de l l O c e a n Pacifique dress6 p a r M. de Krusenstern. S t . Petersbourg,

34

maps.

Lyell, Charles. 1830-1033. P r i n c i p l e s o f geology, being an attempt t o e x p l a i n t h e former changes of t h e e a r t h ' s surface, by r e f e r e n c e t o causes now i n o p e r a t i o n . London, John Murray. Volume 1, 1830,

511

p.

IJolume 2, 1832, 330 p. Volume

3,

1833, 398 p. a d 109 p.

Quoy, J. R. and Gaimard, J. Paul. 1824. Mgmoire s u r l'accroissement des Polypes l i t h o p h y t e s considere g4ologiquement: in, Voyage antour du monde e n t r e p r i s par ordre du Roi

...

^{par M.} Louis de Freycinet.

Zoologie, par MM. Quoy e t Gaimard, M6decins de l t E x p 6 d i t i o n . Paris, Chez P i l l e t ~ h 5 . 712 p. Chapter XV, p.

658-671.

Also r e p r i n t e d i n Amales des Sciences Naturelles, V I , 1825, p. 273-290.