Tae Ho Eom is an assistant professor in the Department of Public Administration at Yonsei University, Korea.
IS PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION A SCIENCE?
It seems axiomatic that public administration can never be a pure science in the sense of the physical or natural sciences (eg chemistry, astronomy and physics). Interestingly, the idea of public administration as a postnormal science may have been proposed much earlier in the evolution of the field when scholars explicitly debated its scientificity.
SEARCHING FOR THE TRUTH
In the Kuhnian context, then, public administration, as with any other branch of the social sciences, can only be paradigmatic. In summary, there are different ontological, epistemological and methodological bases for conducting research in any of the social sciences.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Paper presented at The 13th Annual Conference of the Public Administration Theory Network, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, January 28–29. Knowledge and theory development in public administration: The role of doctoral education and research. Public Administration Review.
THEORY AS HYPOTHESIS-PRODUCING, NOMOTHETIC GENERALIZATION
T HEORY =D ATA VERSUS D ATA =T HEORY
In the US, those who have been unemployed for long periods are systematically excluded from the count. The criticism of rationalism (as well as a priori reasoning, intuition or revelation) is that there is no necessary contact with the observable world.
THEORY AS NARRATIVE
Roethlisberger, 1967) was that the investigator is part of the problem and thus interacts with the subject of investigation. To summarize, one result of the narrative understanding of the theory is that to the normal knowledge-building components of (1) empirical facts and (2) logical coherence, one can add (3) metaphor.
THEORY AND PRACTICE
Solutions that claim to be "one of the best ways" or "best practices" are suspect on this basis. Theory as future practice is waiting in the wings for that impasse moment where it might be allowed on stage.
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
T HOUGHT E XPERIMENTS
41 Many scholars agree that public administration lacks a governing paradigmatic basis (Rainey, 1994; Riccucci, chapter 1 of this volume). We aim to show how public administration students can benefit from the existence of multiple, conflicting paradigms in their own research.
PARADIGMS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
We begin with a brief introduction to the major categorizations of public administration paradigms, and move on to discussions of how to bridge or connect multiple paradigms in a research project. Stillman (1995) identified six schools of the refounding public governance movement that had developed since the 1970s: (1) the Reinventors – an eclectic approach catalyzed by Osborne and Gaebler (1992);
DEALING WITH MULTIPLE PARADIGMS
For example, the main thrust of postwar (World War II) criticism emerged from a debate between those who sought to create a social science focused on administration and those committed to a normative agenda for the field of public administration. Waldo (1946) took an opposing position and aimed to develop a democratic theory of public administration, believing that public administration was.
TAKING ADVANTAGE OF MULTIPLE PARADIGMS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION RESEARCH
L ITERATURE R EVIEW
Frederickson considers new public administration and traditional models as two extremes, between which are transitional positions. In another well-articulated study, Frederickson (1996) compares the reinvented government movement and the new public administration.
M ETHODOLOGY
During the first step, researchers take detailed notes and develop first impressions of nuances and patterns in the data. During the second step, researchers 'read' the data via each paradigm, enabling the construction of the different insights (Lewis and Grimes, 1999).
R ESULTS
It would advance performance measurement research if the two approaches can be more carefully aligned or even integrated. As DeHart-Davis and Kingsley (2005) write, the implications of the results can be specified in different ways depending on one's view of privatization.
CONCLUSION
Studying Management and Public Administration: Challenges and Prospects. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. Modeling the impact of public management: Implications of structural context. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory.
MOTIVATION TO DO RESEARCH AND DECIDE ON A RESEARCH QUESTION
WHERE DO RESEARCH QUESTIONS COME FROM?
Developing a question early on starts with a literature review and a decision on what aspect of the topic you want to focus on. If the question is ``What is the quality of the road?'', the Department of Transportation might want some engineering experts to determine the number and size of potholes in the roads.
TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
If the question is "How often is the road used?", the department may want to use a method to count the traffic. If the question is "How satisfied are the citizens with the road?", then the department may want to obtain data directly from the citizens.
EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT QUESTIONS
From the reader's perspective – when explicit questions are missing, but appropriate informative content is present in the text – the reader can make their own statements about the research questions examined. For example: 'The input dimension includes the adoption of e-government by local governments, the age of local government websites, and the development or evolution of local e-government, as measured by the transactional capabilities of local websites.' specific statements could just as well have been written as a question.
CREATING, CLARIFYING, AND FRAMING RESEARCH QUESTIONS
For example, "Don't say, 'There are too few shelters for homeless families.' It implies one specific solution. The third version of the question focuses more closely on comparing the adoption rates of e-government applications that have been successful or not in other countries.
REVIEW BY COLLEAGUES, PRACTITIONERS, AND CLIENTS
More research questions and sub-questions can be developed than can be investigated in a single study. This problem can be solved by prioritizing them to determine which to investigate in a single study (McNabb, 2002, pp. 67–71).
CONCLUSION
Federal and State Forest Management in the New Millennium: Review of Herbert Kaufman's The Forest Ranger.Public Administration Review. Work motivation in the public sector: A review of current literature and a revised conceptual model. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory.
WHAT IS A LITERATURE REVIEW?
WHAT A LITERATURE REVIEW IS NOT?
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW?
WHEN IS A LITERATURE REVIEW NEEDED?
THE LITERATURE REVIEW—TWO APPROACHES
The history of ideas represents an attempt to transcend the boundaries of specific disciplines by focusing on a specific individual idea. By the history of ideas I mean something at once more specific and less limited than the history of philosophy.
WHEN DOES THE LITERATURE REVIEW START?
It is primarily differentiated by the nature of the entities it deals with. For example, Spicer (2004) provides an excellent example of this approach with his exploration of the concept of the state.
WHAT DO I NEED TO HAVE TO BEGIN A LITERATURE REVIEW?
In general, we like to follow the rule of three, which means that if a name appears more than three times, it should be drawn and read. While this may sound simple enough, it's surprising how often people don't read the seminal works of the question they're addressing.
WHAT ARE THE STEPS IN PERFORMING A LITERATURE REVIEW?
This is a shame, as the best access to information is still only possible through a visit to the library. This is a good source of cutting-edge research and often a good way to track down manuscripts before they are sent.
KEEPING TRACK OF WHAT YOU LEARN
This is not to say that science is "better" or "worse" than metaphysics, only that the basic requirements for the two are completely different and not interchangeable. This is important for two reasons; first, it ensures that the letter reaches its intended destination, and second, it helps the author compare the temporal flow of information.
TEMPORAL ORDERING
T HE B ODY
Often it is more useful to discuss the emergence of a given phenomenon in terms of the components that drove it. By seeing the development of the parts, it is easier to understand the development of the whole.
PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN
The importance of research design is that it determines whether, by whom and for what purposes your research results will be evaluated. Do we know how to use the types of analytical techniques required by a particular type of research question or evidence?
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Argumentation involves research, interpretation, and presentation of the results of that research and interpretation to support a claim, all of which are matters of a research design. This means that I need to write down, in a format that is understandable to the IRB members, many of the key components of the research plan.
CONCLUSION
Does the researcher use operational dimensions, variables and measures that are appropriate for the research question? Qualifications and rebuttals: Does the researcher expressly acknowledge plausible competing explanations or claims and any important limitations of the research.
INTRODUCTION
With greater intellectual foresight on this rapidly evolving current issue, it is possible that a creative research program could have been predicted at the outset. However, it is a form of speculation whether the results would have been better or worse than those examined below.
BACKGROUND
Claiming that the merit system had shifted from protecting the public to protecting employees regardless of performance, Service First was announced in the governor's State of the Union address in 2001. The state's pre-reform personnel system was one of the most productive in the country based on the number of employees compared to the population.
RESEARCH APPROACHES TO PUBLICATION OUTLETS FOR THE TOPIC
N ORMATIVE A PPROACH
One attraction of the normative course of action is that such armchair pieces are much more interesting to write than expository essays. However, one of the virtues of co-authorship is that colleagues create opportunities that may not be immediately apparent.
L ITERARY A PPROACH
So far, most of the present author's study of civil service reform has focused on the American experience. The final version of the manuscript (Bowman and West, 2007a) followed the specified format but, in response to referees, limited the international component to the UK.
P ROGRAM E VALUATION A PPROACH
In the meantime, the magazine changed its editor and the new individual refused to accept the terms of the contract. Through the course of phone calls and correspondence, it became clear that the obligation on behalf of the publication would not be fulfilled.
CONCLUSION: IMPLICATIONS AND PROBLEMS
For example, the subject in question may be of particular importance in the wake of the next gubernatorial election. Question: How can one ensure that it is used in the most effective way by using survey research as an example of an appropriate methodology for the subject of the dissertation.
POSITIVISM
Thus, whether we begin by explaining threats to validity or the components of a research design, both topics—validity and design—are prominent in their importance to quantitative and qualitative methods and data analysis. Notwithstanding the equal footing of validity and design, this chapter will discuss validity as a prologue to a discussion of research design, placing both validity and research design within the framework of positivism.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
The point of the newer approaches to analysis is not that positivism is dead, nor is it the ultimate tool in the social sciences, but that it remains a prominent, viable tool, part of a total "toolbox" of analytical tools where verification of programs needs an empirical interpretation as part of the argument of analysis.
MEASUREMENT VALIDITY
At the beginning of Campbell and Stanley's discussion of validity, it is clear that "internal validity is the sine qua non" (1963, p. 5) - the essential validity - the essence of the experiment. The test to measure aptitude - the construct validity - must be related back to general theories of aptitude, to measure the individual's ability to operate heavy equipment and not general theories of heavy equipment.
THREATS TO RESEARCH DESIGN VALIDITY
Analysts of the Ministry of Health support the continuation of infant nutrition. This happens when experimental groups guess at the purpose of the experiment and tend toward that goal.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Both experimental and control groups will experience equal conditions except for the treatment of the independent variable. Differences between the experimental and control groups are attributed to the effect of the independent variable.
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
The independent variable – stricter drug laws – is introduced, and prison populations are observed over a period of years after the introduction of the laws. The random sampling in pretest-posttest is replaced by an experimental and control group that is not defined by similar characteristics, that is, the experimental and control groups are comparable in all characteristics except the exposure to the independent variable.
SUMMARY
The advantages of this quasi-experiment are that the effect of the independent variable can be transient or reversible (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). Beyond the political context of the research conducted by Professor Hwang is the question of research ethics.
NORMS OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY
The committee recommended online publication of more of the raw data on which the scientific report is based. The extent of the ethical misconduct strongly highlights the failure of the scientific community to adequately address the problem.
THE TREATMENT OF HUMAN SUBJECTS AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE IRB
For an overview of ORI's policies and regulations, please visit their website at: http:==ori.hhs.gov=. Although more and more universities are choosing to offer ethics training for researchers, the findings of Martinson et al.
POTENTIAL HARM TO HUMAN SUBJECTS, INFORMED CONSENT AND PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY
The men were told they were being treated for ''bad blood.''The study looked at the treatment and natural history of syphilis and was designed to monitor how syphilis affected blacks compared to whites. According to Westin, privacy refers to “the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others (1968, p. 7).
CONCLUSION
Financial relationships between board members for institutional audits and industry. The New England Journal of Medicine. In recent years, there has been a resurgence in the use of qualitative research methods in the social sciences.
WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .1 D EFINITIONS
This emancipatory action stimulus is part of the criteria by which the qualitative research is evaluated. Still, within qualitative research methods, one cannot claim that postmodernism or constructivism reigns supreme.
QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Nevertheless, more people agree that qualitative research has become increasingly more interpretive and more aimed at understanding than explaining, with more frequent contestation and fragmentation of research programs and methods (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005a, Atkinson, 2005, Best , 2004). and divergent cultural traditions (Flick, 2005). The task of the researcher should be open-minded consideration of all research alternatives suitable for the specific problem.
STRATEGIES OF QUALITATIVE INQUIRY
Whether interviews are viewed as representing specific contextual beliefs of the interviewees or as an objective truth that can be generalized is a matter of the individual's affiliation with a particular epistemology and does not depend on the value-neutral tool of the interview itself. They focus less on epistemologies and distinguish between qualitative and quantitative methods that focus on more pragmatic criteria such as level of measurement, size of N, use of statistical tests, and thick versus thin analysis (Collier, Seawright, and Brandy). , 2004), or “qualitative data analysis” or “qualitative data analysis” (Ryan, 2005).
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Yin (1984) suggests three questions to choose the most sensible research strategy: What is the nature of the research question. The key issue is for the researcher to identify the research question and make it clear in which aspect of the phenomenon they are interested.
FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STRATEGIES
E THNOGRAPHY
Chein, Cook and Harding (1948) identify four varieties of action research: diagnostic, participatory, empirical and experimental. As one can deduce from the above, action research is a different research strategy in different settings.
QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
D ATA A NALYSIS
Richards and Richards (1994), after discussing qualitative analysis potential of general-purpose software packages (such as word processing and relational database management systems), classify special-purpose qualitative analysis into the following categories: (1) code-and-retrieve software (e.g. Ethnographer), ( 2) rule-based theory-building systems (e.g. HyperRESEARCH), (3) logic-based systems (e.g. AQUAD), (4) index-based software (e.g. NUD.ISTTM), and (5) conceptual network systems (e.g. ATLAS =ti). A German consulting website QUARC (2007) classifies qualitative research software into (1) text receivers and text managers (e.g. Sonar Professional, FolioVIEWS), (2) rule-based systems (e.g. HyperRESEARCH), (3) logic-based systems (e.g. AQUAD) , (4) classic code-and-retrieve programs (e.g. The Ethnograph, winMAX), (5) ''theory builders'' including the (i) index-based approach (Nud*ist) ) or (ii) conceptual network builders, which in turn classified into code-and-retrieve (Atlas.ti) and specialized graphical display (eg Inspiration, Decision Explorer) systems.
THE QUALITY OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Some researchers argue that even such a proposed division of labor is not very accurate, because "the evaluation of theory with qualitative data is not inherently antithetical to qualitative research." But to do so, "qualitative projects must be designed becomes with the goal of theory testing in order to achieve this important goal'' (Ragin et al., 2004, p. 16). Study is linked to ''the big picture.'' The researcher looks at the environment holistically to understand the links between systems.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Behn (1992) convincingly legitimizes the exploratory, meaning-seeking nature of research in public administration: ''The reality of the management world is created by those who write about the world. As White (1994) argues, ''The growth of knowledge in public administration can be satisfied by interpretive and critical research as well as explanatory research.
CONCLUSION
Qualitative research within sociology in Germany and the USA-State of the art, differences and development. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, FQS 6(3), Art. The data puzzle: The nature of interpretation in qualitative research. American Journal of Political Science40(1), 1-32.