This served as a background metaphor for the universe as we discussed - yes, actively debated - the works of the great philosophers whose ideas were the grist for his evolving mill of inquiry. Churchman ends his book with a question: "What kind of world should it be in which research becomes possible?" The question still stands, but the readers of this book will get a little closer to an answer.
The Leibnizian Inquirer
The basic tenets of the organization thus defined must be mutually consistent, lend themselves to memorization and direct application. In addition, new ideas, plans, and visions (i.e., hypotheses) developed within the organization must be consistent with the organization's existing policies, objectives, and core values.
The Lockean Inquirer
An organizational application of the Leibnizian approach can be observed when the policies, goals, ideas of purpose and core values, established by the organization's designers, serve as Leibnizian axioms. As creative tension is exerted to bring the organization closer to its vision, this test of consistency must be constantly reviewed.
The Kantian Inquirer
This is because the Kantian theoretical component is satisfied with alternative models of the world (alternative worldviews). An application of the Kantian approach can be seen in the market testing of new advertising campaigns.
The Hegelian Inquirer
The Singerian Inquirer
Other organizational elements that fit a Singerian research model include training offices and marketing departments. The Internet and World Wide Web serve as resource and dissemination agents for Singerian studies.
Organization of the Book
Finally, in Chapter XIII, Wickramasinghe considers knowledge as a composite construct that exhibits many manifestations of the phenomenon of duality, such as subjectivity and objectivity, as well as having tacit and explicit forms. Her thesis is that a full understanding of the phenomenon of duality is necessary to enable inquiring organizations to reach a state of wisdom and enlightenment.
Special issue of the Journal of Management Information Systems on knowledge-based decision support systems. We would like to thank all authors for their insights and outstanding contributions to this book and thank everyone who participated in the review process.
Foundations of Knowledge Media
Inquiring
Organizations
An Organizational Form Perspective
Abstract
Introduction
Conceptual Foundations of Inquiring Organizations
Organizational Learning
One can see that there is a reciprocal relationship between knowledge management and organizational learning and both must be given attention if the organization is to move towards research. Organizational learning is the development of new knowledge and understanding that has the potential to influence behavior (Fiol & Lyles, 1985; Huber, 1991; Slater & Narver, 1995).
Organizational Form
Inherent in both types of organizational forms is the span of control produced by the organizational structure. The next sections provide descriptions of each of the five Churchman archetypes in the language of organizational form and organizational metaphor (Morgan, 1997).
The Leibnizian Form
Learning occurs at the top of the organization and is pushed down throughout the organization by processes such as demonstration workshops. For example, expert knowledge systems perpetuate experiential knowledge in a clear form through the organization.
The Lockean Form
Unlike the mechanical metaphor, the organization as culture fully understands the social process of organization as a co-creation of both the organization and the environment. Culture itself is difficult to discern and may be an integration of subcultures—some favorable to the organization and others subversive.
The Kantian Form
Organizational memory can then be used within the organization to facilitate knowledge creation and decision making. Fluid and flexible like the organism metaphor, the organization as a political system metaphor provides the support for organizational contention.
The Hegelian Form
The flexibility and sensitivity of the organization as an organism make it a metaphor of functional organizational form for organizations with moderate structure and in a moderately stable environment. Because conflict is not only present but essential to the critical reflection of the synthesis process, this organizational form is reflected in the organization as a metaphor for the political system (Morgan, 1997).
The Singerian Form
The organization as brain is one of the most powerful metaphors to support cognition and learning. Organizational memory is socially constructed based on the interrogators' interaction with (in this case) communities of practice and learning networks.
Integration
To understand how a researching organization can integrate multiple structures based on the questioners, it is first necessary to understand how, from a schematic standpoint, each of the questioners can be procedurally integrated. When a trigger is received from the environment, the investigating organization's first action is to determine the characteristics of the trigger.
Summary
Hegelian forms of inquiry can exist between students and faculty and between faculty and the board of trustees. An evaluation of Singer's approach to organizational learning: examples from academia and utility industry.
Information Technology and Hegelian
Inquiring Organizations
This chapter continues the theme of adapting Churchman's models of inquiry systems by exploring the Hegelian model as it relates to inquiry organizations. This chapter first discusses the nefarious nature of future business environments and then describes Hegel's system of inquiry and how it can be applied to poorly structured organizational situations.
The Wicked Environments of the Future
Malhotra calls the new environment the new-everything world and suggests that organizations must manage their knowledge effectively to survive the new-everything and that the Hegelian approach may be the way to bring knowledge to the surface. The next section describes Hegelian Research Systems and discusses their use in managing knowledge in wicked situations.
Hegelian Inquiring Systems (HIS) and Wicked Environments
We therefore suggest that many knowledge problems can be addressed using a Hegelian conflict approach and that ideal knowledge workers should have the characteristics of a Hegelian synthesist (Kienholz, 1999). We therefore conclude that Hegelian inquiry systems may be well suited for severe problems and knowledge work, and that it may be beneficial to apply Hegelian inquiry systems in organizations facing adverse environments.
Developing Hegelian Inquiring Organizations
We argue that knowledge work does not exist because of tame problems, but because of malicious problems. That is one of the reasons why we can find knowledge workers in the fields where examples of Hegelian research can be found, such as strategic planning, policy formulation, systems analysis and design, competitive intelligence, legal issues, and collective bargaining.
Toward Creative Conflict
Traditional views of leaders, characterized as heroes in the West and charismatic personas in the East, are the antithesis of the leader for Hegelian investigative organizations. Thus, Hegelian inquiry is restless and never ending, just like progress and development in human history.
Toward More Dialog
In the Hegelian research system, the members of the organization agree to strong debates as a teleological consideration. As the dialogue develops, contradictions are resolved in the way the topic changes (Arbnor & Bjerke, 1997).
Toward Open Systems
Learning from the experiences and best practices of competitors is one of the five skills that learning organizations must possess (Garvin, 1993). One of the reasons for the success of Japanese businesses has been their skill in seeking inspiration in external ideas (Nevis, DiBella & Gould, 1995).
Toward Wicked Learning
Diverse, Contradictory Interpretations
Information Systems in Hegelian Organizations
For example, Mason (1981) argues that many information systems are designed for decision-making and decision-making, with the aim of bringing the debate about the right course of action to an early conclusion. Information systems based on decision-making and decision-making may not be suitable for helping people solve bad problems, as they may tend to discourage dialogue and debate.
Hegelian Information Systems
Advanced computing tools can be designed and used to support the analysis of various actors' frames. Some information systems are designed to support argumentation and negotiation in groups that use several different information technologies and techniques, such as hypertext, Internet technology, multimedia, and artificial intelligence.
Use and Implementation of Hegelian Information Systems
The Need for a New Development Model
The synthesis would be the new paradigm of information systems to allow for a variety of conflicting interpretations and support different perspectives for the 21st century. Alternatively, we have proposed wisdom and spirituality as a complementary principle to the design and development of information systems.
The Design and
Evolution of Singerian Inquiring Organizations
Inspiring Leadership for Wise Action
Croasdell and Paradice (1996), research organizations consist of distinct systems whose actions result in the creation of knowledge. As Courtney, Croasdell and Paradice (1998) explain, Singerian research organizations operate on the principle of metrology.
Evolution of Knowledge Management
Since 1996, Courtney, Croasdell, and Paradice have outlined five types of inquiry organizations based on each of Churchman's five inquiry systems. Singerian inquiry organizations are therefore designed to be more effective in enabling the creation, acquisition, capture, sharing, adaptation, dissemination, and application of knowledge than any of the other four forms of inquiry organizations.
From Knowledge Management to Knowledge Ecology
Singeric investigative organizations have the design potential to provide the kind of loose-tight knowledge management systems and efficiencies needed to address the kind of complexity, discontinuous change, and the element of surprise that characterizes the vicious environments of today's organizational reality. With this in mind, we now turn to ways of enabling wisdom through Singerian inquiring organizations.
The Evolution of Leadership Wisdom
Next comes creativity, and its cb is Insightful, followed by Innovation, for which the cb is Entrepreneurial. This is followed by another new data experience, and again, cb is Analytical.
From Knowledge Management/Ecology to Leadership for Enabling Wisdom in the Workplace
Thus, in Singerian investigative systems terminology, they will react situationally in any given circumstance. This can be accomplished by applying Churchman's fact-oriented Lockean and Leibnizian systems of inquiry and the value-oriented Kantian and Hegelian systems of inquiry.
Historical/Philosophical/Theological Perspectives on Wisdom
Churchman further suggests putting together a group of our ancestors that we can draw from when we seek...great conversations with our ancestors. Churchman further informs us that "conversation is not only the attempt to understand what an ancestor says, but what his words mean in shaping our lives" (p. 5).
The Lineage Supporting Singerian Inquiring Organizations
Churchman's (1971) investigative systems would therefore surpass Senge's (1990) concept of systems thinking, which he based on systems theory and systems technology. Through the judicious application of Churchman's systems of inquiry, we can better equip ourselves to approach any given situation or type of research in the most appropriate way.
A Psychological Perspective on Wisdom
What we learn from this reflects the life lessons we learn. Willpower is conation - one of the elements of wisdom referred to above by Birren and Fisher, 1990.).
Inspiring Leadership and Wise Action
Once this level is reached, Wilber's (2000) seminal work on the higher levels of consciousness can provide direction for reaching higher levels of enlightenment. It is a way of affirming our continuity with the wisdom of the ages; a way of acknowledging our own ancestors; a way of transcending and enclosing that which came before us, thus flowing with the flow of the Cosmos; and above all, a way of reminding ourselves that even if we stand on the shoulders of giants, we stand on the shoulders of GIANTS, and we would remember that well.” (p. 10).
Warren Bennis on Leadership
Wisdom, as the highest virtue, is thereby obtained after the successful resolution of the seven prerequisite virtues: hope, will, purpose, ability, faithfulness, love and care (Erikson, 1963, pp. 247-274). This is similar to thinking in terms of the more substantive value-oriented systems of inquiry that Churchman (1971) attributed to Kantian and Hegelian systems of inquiry and the more fact-oriented functional systems of inquiry of Locke and Leibniz.
Robert K. Greenleaf and Servant-Leadership
Second, decision making is shared between the units and the central authority rather than dictated. Fifth, power must be balanced between the units and the central authority and between the units themselves.
Leaders and Heroes
It is therefore up to the leader of federations to determine the why and the what—the overarching vision and purpose—but the other leaders must be responsible for the how (pp. 102-109). All employees thus enjoy true empowerment and greater job satisfaction, and the organization's individual and collective brainpower is tapped, mobilized and optimised.
Singerian Heroic Mood
New ways of recruiting, rewarding and managing will be needed to address the radical reductions occurring in the workforce and the movement into the workforce of a new generation of employees with different values and expectations. McGee-Cooper and Trammell (2002) also list five main ways to practice servant leadership: listen without judgment, be authentic, build community, share power and develop people.
Dialogue and Singerian Inquiring Organizations
Summary and Conclusions
Our understanding of the nature, origin and development of wisdom has therefore developed from a variety of sources. Rethinking systems: An inquiry systems approach to the art and practice of the learning organization.
Kantian
Inquiring Systems
A Case Study
Each part will be illustrated in the context of the world's largest retail organization, Wal-Mart. Wal-Mart is well suited to explore as an example of an interrogative system, and specifically a Kantian one, for two reasons.
Wal-Mart’s History
After dethroning Kmart and Sears, Wal-Mart became America's leading company in the retail industry. The designer's goal is to maximize Wal-Mart's value to shareholders and the value of products and services to consumers.
Kantian Inquiring System
The customer is composed of all consumers who would potentially buy products and services and those who actually do. The components are the products and services in all the stores with top management, local store managers and associates as sub-components.
What is Given?
Wal-Mart is teleological in that it has a series of goals: to maximize profits for shareholders and to minimize costs. Kant's system of inquiry has a theoretical component, and one economic theory that Wal-Mart operates on is the principle of cost minimization.
Input
For example, Wal-Mart listens to associates and local store managers to receive internal input and incorporates their suggestions into its business strategy. Wal-Mart executives looked at several ways (or models) to improve distribution operations.
Guarantor
This ability to share and transfer knowledge between store managers and Wal-Mart headquarters helps create new organizational knowledge. With this way of exchanging organizational knowledge, Wal-Mart as a retail organization is involved in a combination, a way of converting knowledge that goes from tacit to explicit knowledge.
Output
Ruggles (1997) classifies knowledge management tools as those that “enhance and facilitate the generation, codification and transfer of knowledge” (p. 1).
Recommendations
The Kantian inquiry system would select the most appropriate strategy and campaign to promote Wal-Mart in a positive light. Wal-Mart is used as an example of a retail organization to demonstrate some key aspects of the Kantian research system.
Systems, Applications, Developers, and Users
Email and
Knowledge Creation
Supporting
Inquiring Systems and Enhancing Wisdom
Over the past decade, a diverse body of knowledge has accumulated around identifying, understanding, and linking the key concepts of investigative systems and organizations. We wondered if the discourse in the simple tool, email, could support some components of information systems and organizations.
Knowledge Creation in Organizations
In this chapter, we explore the potential of e-mail to support inquiring organizations and enhance wisdom. The chapter provides insights into how inquiry systems and wisdom can be activated in organizations through specific discourse structures supported by e-mail.
The Information Hierarchy
The key knowledge process identified in the conversations was knowledge creation, which suggests to us that in the group appropriation of e-mail for collaborative problem solving, characteristics of investigative systems may emerge through the patterns of discourse. Two different stages are described: In the creation of collections of data, information is provided.
How Knowledge is Created in Organizations
Later in the chapter, we show how different modes of inquiry can systematically guide users in creating knowledge and even increasing wisdom. As we emphasized in the information hierarchy, knowledge arises from people who use information.
Social Knowledge Creation and Decision Making
Second, through regular sampling of external environmental data (for example, scanning the World Wide Web), new knowledge can be brought into the firm and existing organizational knowledge can therefore be validated, updated and expanded. Most knowledge creation models thus show the expansion of a knowledge base through collective human activity and are fundamentally social models.
Social Knowledge Creation and Learning
Various well-known models of learning include the ideas of analysis/convergence and synthesis/divergence—for example, Carlsson, Keane, and Martin (1976) and Kolb (1985). Collaborative conversations based on pragmatic problem-solving and decision-making can be very valuable for learning purposes when synthesis and analysis skills are used and authority does not intervene.'
From Knowledge Creation to Wisdom Enhancement
Since organizations aim not only for new knowledge and learning, but also wisdom in decisions and people, we now discuss the role that knowledge creation can play in leading to wise decisions and, more generally, wisdom. Confidence is also increased when knowledge creation is situated in practice, and the new knowledge that is created is correspondingly highly relevant.
Knowledge Creation in Inquiring Organizations
In addition, if this knowledge is collaboratively created, it can later be defended by those who built it, providing greater confidence in the validity of the knowledge in the organizational context.
Organizational Memory
Inquiring System Knowledge Domain and Inquirers
Level of Complexity of Knowledge Work Domain
Values and Ethics
Support of Knowledge Creation and Inquiring Systems in Email Discourse
Knowledge Creation Cycle in Email Discourse
In the conversations studied, we observed that the impetus for the research and knowledge creation cycle came from an individual (alone or on behalf of a collective) questioning issues such as new directions, problems, challenges or opportunities.
From Knowledge to Wisdom in Email Discourse
By comparing the cycle in Figure 6 with the cycle of wise decision making in Figure 2 (and shown again in Figure 4), we see a correspondence between the qualification and convergence processes in that current alternatives are considered and assessed, leading to the conclusion of decisions hurry up Ray (crystallization, part): ‘‘Perhaps it is time to look at alternative ways that offer even better value?’’.
Mode of Inquiry and Decision Making
According to the second perspective of wisdom as fallible knowledge, expressed in Figure 3, it is through such combinations in e-mail that an attitude of wisdom can be fostered, by adding knowledge that balances doubt or trust in knowing.
Domain Complexity
We observed signs of this type of management and leadership in the discourse interactions, although this did not appear to be planned. The leadership that emerged appears to be mainly based on natural authority of a patriarchal or matriarchal nature and was obtained through the process of knowledge qualification, although an act of power was sometimes clearly linked to an actor with designated authority, as we discussed in the next section.
Organizational Memory and External Knowledge Resources
However, it was certainly true that in the e-mail conversations in our empirical study there was usually an attempt to include the necessary people and thus correct possible errors in the knowledge being shared (thus ensuring that the resulting knowledge created had a greater chance of accuracy). Further, we found that accuracy problems in e-mail discourse were reduced to some extent because errors could be detected fairly late in the cycle and relatively easily corrected.
Values and Ethics in Knowledge Creation in Email
In some ways, we saw accuracy improved by email through the rationale and results of the additional "information gathering" (the first stage of the LOKMS model) provided by participants. For example, by being able to see the justification provided, participants could more openly assess the accuracy of the facts or explicit knowledge upon which a decision was made.
Conclusion
We reported an empirical study of knowledge creation in e-mail from which some of the key features of inquiry systems emerged. In Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS'99), Maui, HI, USA.
Supporting the Complexity of
An Agent Approach
A framework for such organization is based on the philosophies underlying investigative systems (Churchman, 1971); an organization that applies the framework is known as an investigative organization (Courtney, Croasdell & Paradice, 1998). Although the Churchman (1971) questioners on which the concept of an inquiring organization is based are separate entities, they are discussed in terms of an overall system of knowledge creation and sharing.
Technological Support of an Inquiring Organization
Support Requirements for Inquiring Organizations
Multiagent systems are used to support knowledge networks and corporate memory (Aguirre, Brena & Cantu, 2001). The coordination problem of using multi-agent systems to support knowledge management in supply chain systems has been studied by Wu (2000) and Barbuceanu and Fox (1997).
A Layman’s Explanation of Agent Technology
Therefore, this chapter begins the discussion of agents and multiagent systems specific to the organization's research philosophy. Agents can be used to support the requesting organization's support systems that need to interact with users and other technologies (for example, collaborative software).
An Agent Model for Inquiring Organizations
In this model, beliefs can be defined as the informational component of the agent's state. Implicit in the social plan is the need for the agent to act under direction.
A Lockean Cooperative Agent System Example
The sequencer agent and the aircraft agent have different intentions and desires, thus different perceptions of the world (beliefs). If all members agree that the outline of the five-year plan fits the goals of the organization, the plan becomes part of the organization and is stored as a secret observation.
A Multiagent Lockean Inquiring System
In addition to the complex multi-agent system in which the questioning agents reside, any of the questioners can be designed as a multi-agent system in itself. This descent through levels is required to reach granularity for implementation purposes (ie, one simple agent that can be constructed as the basis of a multiagent system).
A Multiagent Cooperative System for Inquiring Organizations
The multiagent system is itself an organization; the relationship between the entities defines that organization. It is likely that an organization will use many configurations to meet its various needs; the ability to use different configurations Figure 3.
Designing a Multiagent System to Support Inquiring Organizations
The time/space component plays an important role in the efficiency of the organization as well as the integrity of the organization's knowledge base. The interface agent is included here to present the need for human-computer interaction, as it is important to recognize the importance of user input to an inquiring system.
Existing Agent Technology to Support Integrity Checking Components
Agent mobility is a popular area of agent research and predicted to be the future of the Internet (Kotz & Gray, 1999). Proceedings of the Seventh European Workshop on Modeling Autonomous Agents in a Multi-Agent World, MAAMAW'96.
Knowledge Creation in Inquiring
Organizations Using KDD
Re-Focusing Research on the Analyst
Information search theory is offered as a research lens through which we can examine the role of human judgment in KDD. We therefore explore the potential of using information search theory as a research lens through which to examine the role of human judgment in KDD.
The KDD Process
The data analyst is a human user of data mining tools who is intimately involved in all steps of the KDD process. The analyst then analyzes the extracted subset of the database using data analysis and/or visualization tools to gain insights into the data.
KDD and Churchman’s Taxonomy
Sophisticated statistical procedures, such as structural equation modeling, closely resemble the spirit of the Kantian approach. Analyst-centered KDD aligns with Churchman's (1971) allusions to libraries and library users, noting that "the state of knowledge resides in the combined system of the library and an astute and skilled human user" (p. 9).
Limitations of DM and KDD Research
KDD as Information Foraging
Pirolli and Card (1999) noted numerous parallels between foraging behavior and information seeking on the Internet. At most, the information seeking approach can be seen as overly focused on the individual.
Potential Research Avenues Blending KDD, Information Foraging, and
- Attention Processes
- Decision Processes
- KDD Tool Use/Selection
- Individual Differences
- Ethical and Privacy Issues
For example, there is a body of research that addresses the situation when a global view of a data set provides a different perspective than a more detailed view of the data. Of course, an obvious issue here is that of the wisdom/expertise of the data analyst.
Inquiring Organizations as Knowledge Foragers
The concept of knowledge seeking will include the possibility that the most effective mix of research approaches may change in response to changes in an organization's competitive environment. Uthurusamy (Eds.), Advances in knowledge discovery and data mining (pp Menlo Park, CA: AAAI Press/MIT Press.
Using Inquiring Practice and
Uncovering
Exformation for
Information Systems Development
Consequently, this chapter conceives a new way of understanding information systems development through the lens of research practice, Socratic dialogue, and discovery of exformation. We show that by applying this approach, we can improve the research capabilities of organizations and thereby facilitate the design and development of better information systems.
Inquiring Practice and Information Systems Research
Developer-User Communication Problem
Developer-User Communication Problem in Conventional Information Systems Development
Knowledge creation and knowledge sharing within and between communities of practice has been much discussed for several years. Brown and Duguid (1998) emphasize the problems of lack of interaction between different communities of practice, and argue that innovations, including new information systems, arise when different communities share and discuss experiences and best practices.
The Socratic Dialogue
Duguid (1991), for example, argues that work, learning and innovation are linked, and to understand this, we must study formations and changes within the communities that actually do the work.
Background
The Method of Socratic Dialogue
Specifically, Nørretranders (1991) states that “education is everything that we do not actually say, but have in our minds when or before we say anything. We believe that the disclosure of exformation in Socratic dialogue is very useful for the conceptualization and design of information systems, as it allows the developers and users of future information systems to create an intelligent understanding of the opposing side.
Case: Design and Development of the FX-System
Development and Delivery of the FX-System
In the autumn of a year after the initiation of the project, Unique faced new problems in the FX project. In the end, Unique succeeded in developing and delivering the currency system to the West Bank, although it took more than a year and a half of additional work to complete the project, which meant a project lasting two years in total.
Interpretation of the Case
However, little dialogue about the users' requirements for the system took place in the initial stages of the process. When the communicative actions are interpreted in the light of the Socratic dialogue, we get the following picture.
Closure: Socratic Dialogue and Wisdom
Therefore, the developer side should provide an example in line with the Socratic dialogue method at an early stage. Therefore, we suggest that the Socratic dialogue is useful beyond the scope covered in this chapter.
Endnotes
An assessment of the Singerian questioning organizational model: Cases from academia and the utility industry.
Appendix A: Case Methodology
However, interviews with organizational members lasting between one and two hours were the main source of empirical evidence. Before writing up the cases, the researcher reviewed the empirical evidence to get an initial impression of the data and wrote notes about the activities and people involved in each case.
Wisdom, Mindfulness,
Awareness, and Wise Action
Avoiding
Epistemological Myopia
Much of this can be traced back to the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm (Penrose, 1959) and from the more recent knowledge-based view (KBV) of the organization. The knowledge-based view of the firm, provided by Drucker (1988), can be considered a special case of the RBV with a focus on knowledge as an organizational resource (Grant, 1996a, 1996b).
Nature of Epistemological Myopia
Finally, we propose that organizations can develop well-considered policies and actions that change their behavior and correct their epistemological myopia. The final discussion discusses the practical implications and suggests activities that can help organizations prevent epistemological myopia.
Organizations as Learning Systems
