TA'RĪB AS AN ARABIC MODERNIZATION AND THE SPIRIT OF NATIONALISM: A HISTORICAL STUDY OF ARABIZATION / TA’RIB SEBAGAI MODERNISASI BAHASA ARAB DAN SEMANGAT NASIONALISME: SEBUAH KAJIAN HISTORIS TENTANG ARABISASI

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125 Muhammad Saiful Anam

TA'RĪB AS AN ARABIC MODERNIZATION AND THE SPIRIT OF NATIONALISM: A HISTORICAL STUDY OF ARABIZATION TA’RIB SEBAGAI MODERNISASI BAHASA ARAB DAN SEMANGAT

NASIONALISME: SEBUAH KAJIAN HISTORIS TENTANG ARABISASI

Muhammad Saiful Anam

email: [email protected] Institut Ilmu Al-Qur’an Jakarta

Abstract: This article aims to investigate the process of forming ta'rīb (Arabization) of foreign words into Arabic language and factors influencing the arabization process. The researcher used library research method with historical analysis. Research data sources were a number of literatures that is considered valid and credible. The result of study indicated that ta'rīb have began in the late 19^th century and the ta’rib phenomenon that occur in Arabic was as a response to the development of civilization although there were pros and cons. Ta'rīb process of foreign words and terms into Arabic language was carried out in three ways, namely absorption, translation and formation of new words or terms. Absorption of words and terms was usually done by lexicographers, while the translation and formation of new words or terms were mostly done by language institutions. There were several factors that lead to the ta'rīb process, namely the influence of the power politics, science development carried out by scientists and writers, the influence of globalization, and the spirit of nationalism of Arab society.

Keywords: Arabization, modernization, nationalism, absorption, translation, new word.

Abstrak: Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menyelidiki proses ta'rīb (Arabisasi) kata-kata asing ke dalam bahasa Arab dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya. Peneliti menggunakan metode penelitian kepustakaan dengan analisis historis. Sumber data adalah literatur-literatur terkait yang dinilai valid dan kredibel. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ta’rib telah dimulai sejak akhir abad ke-19 dan fenomena ta’rib terjadi dalam bahasa Arab sebagai respon terhadap perkembangan peradaban meskipun sempat menimbulkan pro dan kontra. Proses ta'rīb untuk kata dan istilah asing ke dalam bahasa Arab dilakukan dengan tiga cara, yaitu penyerapan, penerjemahan, dan pembentukan kata atau istilah baru. Penyerapan biasanya dilakukan oleh leksikografer, sedangkan penerjemahan dan pembentukan kata atau istilah baru kebanyakan dilakukan oleh lembaga bahasa. Terdapat beberapa faktor yang menyebabkan terjadinya ta'rīb, yaitu pengaruh dari politik penguasa, perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan oleh para ilmuwan dan penulis, pengaruh globalisasi yang mendunia, dan semangat nasionalisme dari masyarakat Arab.

Kata kunci: Arabisasi, modernisasi, nasionalisme, penyerapan, penerjemahan, kata baru.

INTRODUCTION

The consequence of language is it cannot be inclusive and independent by maintaining the originality of all the vocabulary and classical meanings, like Arabic that cannot be used as same as it

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used to in throughout ancient Arab regions (Filimonova, 2005). Like it or lump it, Arabic must accept and adopt the vocabularies that come from other languages called 'ajam or create new form that has close meaning to the foreign words (Friederike, 2020). It is caused by the rapid development of science and technology which is dominated by USA and European countries. Then, this phenomenon has led to the emergence of ta'rīb in Arabic.

The etymology of ta'rīb comes from Arabic and this word is a masdar of the verb ََبَّرَع, which means translating words into Arabic (Atabik & Muhdlor, 1998), or replacing foreign languages into Arabic (Ma’luf, 2001). As for terminology, several figures give definitions about it, ta'rīb is the absorption of foreign language in the form of words or phrases (Hadi, 2005). Syauqi Dayyif stated that ta'rīb is the word formation in Arabic after being transferred from foreign language into Arabic (Majma’, 2005). Ahmad Bek Isa gives definition that ta'rīb is another way to transfer the words by translating from foreign language’s vocabulary, forming words and verbs, making majāz, or abbreviating words if the match words cannot be found in Arabic vocabulary (Isa, 1923).

Meanwhile, Tawwab explains that ta'rīb is foreign words absorption into Arabic after undergoing pronounce alternation and wazan follows the Arabic pattern or rule (Tawwab, 1997). According to Ya'kub, ta'rīb is defined as the pronunciation of the word ‘ajam into Arabic by following the method in Arabic rules or moving it completely (Ya’kub, 1982).

This phenomenon gains responses from its native speakers, the Arabian. Some of them agree, yet other parts of them disagree. Some educated people and workers agree about ta'rīb, especially when they use modern communication tools. However, for those who maintain the Arabic language, they reject all of the process of ta'rīb. Regarding to those who disagree about ta'rīb, this phenomenon can endanger the entity of Arabic itself. They keep their nose to the grindstone to resist the foreign language by reviving and using the classical Arabic words as a substitute for foreign words such as

ةرايس

as a substitute for

فتاهلا َ، ليبوموتوأ

as a substitute for

بوساحلا َ،نوفلتلا

^{as a}

substitute for

رتويبمكلا

, etc. In addition, there is also a third group that is more moderate in responding to the phenomenon of ta'rīb. They don't completely reject and accept everything. This group allows ta'rīb for modern foreign words when the equivalent Arabic vocabularies cannot be found either in dictionaries or in classical encyclopedias (Hanna, 2018).

In communication, people can create various languages based on the level of society (Mu’in, 2004). Thus, language is considered as a living organism that is created, lives, has descent, mutates, dies, and relates to other languages (Masluh, 2014). This phenomenon indirectly indicates that languages grow together with its users wherever they are. As stated by Ali Abdul Wafi, the development of language is influenced by several factors, including the effect of other languages and socio-geographic factors, such as culture, custom and community belief (Wafi, 1962).

Therefore, it also happens in Arabic when it is functioned as the language for religion, science, politics, economics, social and culture. Then, Arabic becomes the official language for various organizations related to Islamic and Arab countries, such as Rābithah al-Ālam al-Islāmy, Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the Arab League and others (Hadi, 2005). As result, some of Arabic language institutions need to translate, form new phrases, absorb, and adapt the foreign vocabularies in order to deal with Arabic rules, so that the term of ta'rīb or arabization has

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resulted the emergence of new type of Arabic dictionary (Syamsul, 2002). Due to ta'rīb is a topic of loanwords and is considered to be the development of meaning in Arabic, the author will explain the concept of ta'rīb, its formatting process and its implications to the Arabian nationalism spirit.

METHOD

The method used in this study is library research to investigate ta'rīb process and the influence factors. The research is done by collecting the data and information as complete as possible from library sources related to the historical of ta'rīb from time to time, especially the process of change and the method of implementing, classifying the data used for the research, analyzing and giving interpretation about the data. This research is important to do with the aim that the reader knows and understands the history of development ta'rīb as a form of modernization and spirit of nationalism in Arab world.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

This new phenomenon occurred roughly in the late quarter of the 20th century. As a result of science and technology development, new vocabularies always enriched Arabic that come from foreign language. Foreign words and phrases formation is carried out by linguists, both from individual or various language institutions. The existing language institutions are divided into two, there are being part of an institute or university and some of them are not (Syamsul, 2002). This development of Arabic started from the late of 19th century until the second half of the 20th century. During that time, Egypt and Lebanon contributed many well-known linguists and became the centre of other Arab regions. The Egyptian linguists who contributed are listed below:

1. Tahtawi Jauhari (1870-1939), an Islamic reformer who compiled the book Ittihād al-Lughatain al- Fusḥā wa al-'Ammiyyah;

2. Ahmad Taymur (1871-1930), corrected the two famous dictionaries Lisān al-'Arab by Ibn Mandzur and Muhīth al-Muhīth by Butrus Al-Bustani;

3. Azar Armaniyus (1873-1941), a pharmacist;

4. Ahmad Isa (1878-1946), a doctor. Azar Armaniyus and Ahmad Isa composed medical pharmacy and natural science vocabulary.

Meanwhile, Lebanon linguists are the linguists who came from Christian society. The Ma'luf family for generations produced the famous linguists such as:

1. Nasif al-Ma'luf (died 1865);

2. Fauzi Ma'luf (1873-1943) compiled engineering, zoology, astronomy and botany dictionaries;

3. Louis Ma'luf (1863-1947) compiled the Al-Munjid dictionary which is still very popular nowadays.

After this period, the Arab League established Ma'had al-Dirāsat wa al-Abḥāts li al-Ta'rīb (The Institute of Ta'rīb Research and Study) in Rabath in 1960. This institute coordinates several linguists that come from language institutes around Arab countries. In addition, this institution also holds a congress every year and establishes al-Lisān al-'Araby journal to communicate various thoughts and policies on the development of the Arabic language. The process of forming ta'rīb for foreign words and terms is carried out in three ways, namely absorption, translation and the formation of new

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terms. Absorption of words and terms is usually done by lexicographers. While the translation and formation of terms is mostly done by language institutions.

1. Absorption of Foreign Words and Terms

In foreign-Arabic dictionaries found more absorption of words compared to Arabic- foreign and Arabic-Arabic dictionaries. The absorption of words from the Al-Mawrid (English- Arabic) dictionary published in 1973 ranks at the top of about 4.000 words. Among the absorptions are:

Words/Terms from Al-

Mawrid After Absorbed Transliteration

tapioca

اكويبت

^Tabiyuka

pagoda

َةدوغاب

^Baguda

alleluia

َايولله

^Haliluya

phaeton

َنوتيف

^Faitun

galvano

ينافلك

^Kalfani

This also applies to the names of countries/regions that come from foreign languages such as:

Country Name Arabic Language Region Name Arabic Language

Japan

َ َناباي

^London

َ َنودنول

Germany

َ َينالمأ

San Francisco

َ َوكسيسنارفَناس

France

َ َاسنرف

^Shanghai

َ يهَغناش

Spain

َ َاينابسإ

^{New York}

َ كرويوين

Nederland

َ َادنلوه

^Paris

َ َسيراب

Portugal

َ َلاغترب

^Barcelona

َ َةنولشرب

Korea

َ ايروك

^Amsterdam

َ مادرتسمأ

Denmark

َ َكرامند

Washington

َ َنطنشاو

In addition, the formation of verbs from English verbs such as:

English Verb After absorbed Transliteration

acclimate

ملقؤي

^Yuaqlimu

bacterize

رتكبي

^Yubaktiru

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suberize

َزربسي

^Yusabrizu

balkanize

نقلبي

^Yubalqinu

pasteurize

رتسبي

^Yubastiru

vulkanize

نكلفي

^Yufalkinu

telephone

نفلتي

^Yutalfinu

anglicize

َ َزلكني

^Yunaklizu

2. Translation

In addition to absorption, translation is also carried out from foreign languages. This is due to the development of terms in modern science, so Arabic is forced to translate these terms, such as:

English Prefix Arabic Prefix Examples of English Words

Examples of Arabic Words

Post...

يفلخََ...

post-dental

َيفلخَينانسأ

Pre.../Pra...

...بق

^Pradental

Prepalatal Prejunctural

Prevelar

َينانسأبق

َيراغبق

َيلصافبق

َيقلخبق

Non...

َ...لالا

Non-syllabic

يعطقملالا

Poli...

ددعتمََ....

^polisemy

َددعتمَيناعلما

Inter....

َ....يب

Interdiciplinary

Interlude Interdental

َيماظنيب يتئاصيب

َينانسأيب

....logy

ايجول....

^Phonology

Philology

َايجولونوف

َايجولوليف

....ism

َةي....

Existentialism

Socialism Capitalism

َةيدوجو

َةيكارتشا

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َةيلامسأر

...ics

َةي....

^politics

َةيسايس

...mono

يداحأََ...

^monoglot

يداحأَةغللا

3. Formation of New Words

To form a new term in Arabization of a foreign language, isytiqaq or wazan which already exists in Arabic is used. There are several wazans in Arabic that are not commonly used in previous sharf science, which are currently used to form new terms, including:

To purpose Wazan Examples of English Words

Examples of Arabic Words Show disease

َلاَعُف

^Diabetes

Headache Cough Rhinitis Flu

َلا َوُب عا َد ُص

مَاكُز

َفاَن ُ أ

َ

َلاَع ُس

ََلَعَف

^Exostosis

Rabies Ophthalmia Psoriaris

ََنَرَع بَلَك

ََد َمَر ف َص َح

َلوعفم

Stomachache

Dizzy

َنوطبم

عودصم

Show profession

َة َ

لاَعِف

Stationery Barber Shipping Journalism

َةَقاَرِو ةَقَلا ِح

َةَنا َف ِس

َةَفا َح ِص

َلاَّعَف

^Driver

Pilot Surgeon Lionist

َقا َّو َس

َراَّي ط َ

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Florist

حاَّر َج

َدا َّس َ أ

َرا َّهَز

Show tools

لَع ْف ِم

Hydrometre Barometre Kipas Angin

َلَب ْس ِم طَغ ْض ِم

حَوْر ِم

َلاَع ْف ِم

Stethoscope Microscope Helioscope Telescope

عا َم ْس ِم

َراَه ْج ِم سا َم ْش ِم

َرا َ ظْن ِم لِ ع َف ُم

^Generator

Analyser Amplifier Transformer

َدِ ل َو ُم لِ لَحُم

ََرِ ب َكُم

َلِ و َح ُم

َة لاَّعَف َ

^Headphone

Washing machine Refrigerator

َةَعا َّم َس

َة لا َّسَغ َ ة َج َّلاَث

Word ends

-logy

َة َ

لاَعِف

^Ethnology

Genealogy Urinology

َة َسا َّسَر

َةَبا َّسَن

َة لا َّوَب َ

The process of developing the arabization method in terms of time is as follows:

a) Arabization approach in the pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods

In his book "Tahqiq wa Syarh Abd al-Salam Harun," Sibawayh describes the Arabization method, stating: Know that they change letters from non-Arabic alphabets that are not from Arabic alphabets at all (Al-Jahidz, 1965). This suggests that they may have joined a letter to the construction of their words, but they may not have joined it, leaving the name unchanged or

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not. It was understood from Sibawayh that he divided the Arabized into four categories when he spoke of the Arabs' style and Arabization method here:

- A section that the Arabs divided and attached it to Arabic structures, such as the word

"

َْم َهْر ِد

" from the Greeks, which attached to "

عَر ْج ِه

," and word "

راَنْي ِد

" from the Roman was attached to the Arabic word "

سا َمْي ِد

^".

- A section that they changed but didn’t include it in the Arabic words and phrases, such as the word "

دْنِرِف

", "

َ ر ُجآ

" and "

َم َسْيرْبِإ

^".

- A section that they didn’t change because its buildings were similar to Arabic buildings, such as "

َمَّر ُخ

" was similar to "

مَّل ُس

", "

َْم ُكْر ُك

" was similar to "

م ُقْر ُق

َ".

- A section that they left as it was and didn't change it, like

َنا َساَر ُخ

b) Arabization approach in the Abbasid era

One of the reasons for Arabization in ancient times was the scientific renaissance and the mixing of Arabs with the people of the conquered countries such as Alexandria. Then, the Arabs arabized new scientific terms using the translation method, this is one of the methods used by Hunayn ibn Ishaq, one of the figures of Arabization:

- The Arabs are of the view that every term 'ajam has a meaningful Arabic equivalent

- The Arabs came up with a sentence and then looked for the equivalent meaning either by using the same or different sentences

c) Arabization approach in the contemporer era

The Arabization Coordination Office of the League of Arab States has developed a curriculum on Arabization written by Abdul Aziz bin Abdullah in his book “Arabization and the Future of Arabic”, such as (Ya’kub, 1982):

- Inventory of the Arabic language words and tabulating them according to their meanings - Inventory of French and English words and tabulated them according to their meanings - Collection of translated terms

- Arranging scientific and technical expressions according to their topics - Inventory of non-arabized terms

- Writing a dictionary of the Arabic language

- Unify new terms and their definitions in the Arab world

Several factors influenced the arabization process in Arabic, such as:

1. Politics

Politic becomes the greatest factor that gives impact to the process of ta'rīb. History recorded that the arabization movement was begun in a structured way during Umayyah dynasty (Zaga, 2020). At that time, Caliph Abdul Malik bin Marwan started the Arabization of the country (ta'rīb al-daulah) by making Arabic as the official language of the country, then continued the arabization to the state administration (ta'rīb al-dawāwīn), currency, and even the culture itself (Mas’ud, 2001). In the same time, the process of theorization and dynamism of Arabic began to develop.

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Currency was also officially impacted by this arabization (in the form of dinars and dirhams), whereas the previous name of currency had taken from Persian or Roman-Greek language. Moreover, transaction activities also changed to use Arabic as well, so that Arabic is not only language of religion, but also language of the state including its administration, bureaucracy, diplomacy, and social economy (Hallaq, 1999).

The arabization also occurred in Abbasid dynasty through lots of foreign books translation activities into Arabic. Especially, the caliphate of Harun al-Rashid (786-809 M) and al-Ma'mun (813-833 M) succeed carrying out the intellectual movement. At that time, translation of a fairy tale book from Sanskrit known as Kalīlah wa Dimnah by Bidpai also occured. This book was translated by Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa. In addition, he has translated many other books related to philosophy and logic, including Aristotle's works such as Categoris, Hermeneutica, Analityca Posterior and Porphyrius' Isagoge (Qadir, 2002).

In this modern era, massive arabization processes have also happened in various regions of the Arabian Peninsula (Aslam, 2020). This is marked by emergence of language institutions that specifically analyse Arabic linguistics in the modern era, such as established the Arabic Science Center in Damascus in 1919, the Arabic Language Center (the first Arabic language center) in Cairo in 1934, and the Iraqi Science Center in Baghdad in 1947.

Those institutions are aimed to make Arabic suitable to science, art and literature in modern era.

In addition, an Arabization Conference was held for the first time on 3-7 April 1961 in Rabath. The conference was attended by delegates from various universities in Arabia, Jordan, Algeria, Egypt, Syria, Libya, Sudan, Tunisia and Morocco which resulted an agreement to establish various institutions of arabization in every Arab country and a center of science integrated to Arabic. After that, similar conference was also held as the continuation of the first conferences such as the Arabization Conference in Jordan in 1961, Second Arabization Conference in 1973, Scientific Seminar related to scientific and technological translation in Beirut in 1979, New Scientific Phrase Determination Seminar in 1981 in Rabath and Arabic Phrase Determination Development System and Deployment Seminar in Oman in 1993. Apart from that, there are lots of efforts made by individuals, institutions and universities from each Arabian Peninsula’s country that execute various works to realize the purpose of the first Arabization Conference in 1961 (Khalifah, 2003).

2. Scienties and litterateur

The development of language is most related to the development of thought and science. This is a necessity because language is one of the cultural elements which always follows dynamic cultural characteristics. In nineteenth century, Egypt sent some scientists to various European countries, this phenomenon became the starting point for the translation of science into Arabic. After returning to Egypt, these scientists taught modern science and engineering using Arabic. At that time, Arabic became the language to lecture medicine, engineering, etc. Therefore, a comprehensive translation of modern science into Arabic is

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needed to bridge and connect Arabic to European, then it is important to develop Arabic in teaching field, administration and all aspects of life.

In Damascus (Syria) at the beginning of twentieth century, precisely in 1919, there was a massive movement of translating science into Arabic (ta'rīb). Syrian universities required to use Arabic in teaching and all courses at Law Faculties, whereas it had taught in Turkish previously. The development of comprehensive Arabization at that time was evidenced that how important Arabic is in every part of life, such as in teaching, research, administration, economy, industry, law, courts and any information in the mass media, both printed and electronic (Khalifah, 2003). The early Arabization were carried out by scientists relying on the books of turath (Syamsu, 2018), books in Egypt during the Arab supremacy in the medical and engineering faculties as well as books written by orientalists at the American University in Beirut.

Besides of scientists, writers also contributed to the rapid influence of Arabization process. Especially in the modern and contemporary era, many poets have traveled to Europe, North America and South America. They grew widely assisted by society in emerging countries. This group is known as al-Shu'arā’ al-Mahjar (diaspora poets). Most of them came from Lebanon and Syria. Famous Arabic poets in this group are Kahlil Gibran, Michael Naimy, Iliya Abu Madli and others.

3. Globalization

Globalization gives influence to many fields, such as: science, technology, communication, information, and others. The emergence of stock exchange also impacts the spread of foreign culture. Globalization has been pioneered by many western countries like United States of America, France, United Kingdom, Germany, Netherlands and others, therefore their languages also spread worldly. Like it or lump it, Arabian countries need to deal with this situation by using their language also (Hendal: 2019). The entity of majma' al- lughah in Arabian countries require the process of ta’rib in many ways to apply foreign language into Arabic.

4. Spirit of Nationalism

Language interrelates to idea, sense, and work. In the other way, the language is not only words (ta’bir), but it also reflects the ideas, senses, and social life of the nations that reflects the users. In scientific research, it concludes that Arabic evolves continuously (Khalifah, 1988). Fi al-Ta'rīb book explains about ta'rīb movement in Syria, Egypt and Iraq.

Furthermore, the writer learned about arabization movement with its various kinds of arabization activity, especially in Syria, Egypt, and Iraq. The writer states that ta'rīb has its specific rules which differs from translation process. There are special principles about ta'rīb that correspond to isytiqāq and word formation in Arabic in order to obtain the similar meaning. The arabization in Caliph Abd al-Malik and al-Walid is language change in administration that can be known as diwān, from Greek to Arabic in Damaskus region (Hitti, 2005).

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Abu al-Raihani al-Biruni (d. 440) with his famous book al-Saydanah fi al-Tibb which he said in the introduction of this book, as quoted by Abd Al-Kareem al-Yafi: "There are lots of knowledges from various countries there are transmitted verbally into Arabic, it successfully attracts Arabians and permeate to their hearts then Arabic dialect is more likely to be adore than Farsi” (al-Yafi, 2008). As an example, naht is said to be a form of assimilation of foreign word or part of ta'rīb. The emergence of the use of this arabization model has been accompanied by continuing criticism. Primarily in era of anti-colonialism, this represented a corruption of the rules of Arabic books, and worse was a sign of sluggish Arab politics and the dangers of excessive importation from the West (Elshakry, 2014).

Geopolitics vividly caused debating about naht. Al-Muqtaṭafāt book explained that no need to be shame taking something from western country’s culture. Knowledge offers benefit to everyone and cannot be restricted by nations, because science belongs to everybody. Marwa Elshakry stated that "Western ever loaned something from us when we were in a great era, but it is currently our turn to borrow something from them” (Elshakry, 2014). In early 1891, there was a reader who critiqued the usage of foreign language (al-kalimah al-'ajamiyyah).

Taking off the fact, the reader claimed that the ancient Arabic is one of the most comprehensive languages which comprehend the meaning and utterance from other languages. That opinion got a respond from an editor that foreign words majorly used in journals like

نيجوسكأ

(oxygen) and

نيجورديه

(hydrogen) did not have its synonym in Arabic.

Even, synonym are often imported from common or well-known phrases, like al-murqasiya versus al-bismuth. The editor also reminded the reader that Arabic scholars like Ibnu Sina and al-Razi took turn to import the phrases as well.

After world war one and Egypt revolution in 1919, this political issue debated again.

Mazhar is more likely to use simple derivation and resuscitation from ancient phrases, even though in some cases, he thought that foreign phrases is very technical or it relates to certain novel, for instance acrasieae (

ةيسرقأ

) or amoeba (

ايبيمأ

). When he used Arabic phrases, he usually added optional description taken from common Arabic. In this term, he tried to balance the inovation (

عادبإ

) and the familiarity (

فراعت

^).

CONCLUSION

Ta'rīb in Arabic happens when loanwords have undergone some changes to correspond the Arabic principles. Ta'rīb is result of interaction among Arabic and other languages that require the arabization. This development began in the late 19th until towards the second half 20th century. In that time, Egypt and Lebanon contributed many well-known language experts and became the center of other Arabic teritories. Process of forming ta'rīb for foreign words and terms is carried out in three ways, namely absorption, translation and the formation of new terms. There are some factors that drive ta'rīb happened, such as the pressure of political authority, development of science that is accomplised by language experts and writers, the influence of globalization that has broaden throughout the world and arabization that is the entity of Arabian nationalism.

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