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CURRICULA AT SELECT CHRISTIAN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of
The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
by
Anthony Wayne Foster May 2010
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A STUDY OF POST-BACCALAUREATE LEADERSHIP CURRICULA AT SELECT CHRISTIAN INSTITUTIONS
OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Anthony Wayne Foster
Read and Approved by:
G~~
Michael S. WIlde
Date
~/~Z-
/2-01 0I
Your sunny disposition shines as brightly as your mind and as warmly as your servant heart for the Lord;
these have inspired, sustained, and humbled me through this process, as they have for over thirty years.
Page LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. . . .. Vll LIST OF TABLES. . . . IX
LIST OF FIGURES. . . .. Xl
PREFACE. . . .. Xll
Chapter
1. RESEARCH CONCERN. . . 1
Introduction to the Research Problem. . . 1
Purpose Statement. . . 8
Research Questions . . . 8
Research Delimitations. . . . 8
Terminology. . . . 9
Methodological Design. . . 14
Research Assumptions ... 15
2. PRECEDENT LITERATURE... 16
Biblical/Theological Foundations for Christian Leadership Education . . . 16
Biblical Models for Leadership. . . .. 24
Parallels to the Biblical Models in the Leadership Literature ... 30
What is Christian Leadership? . . . .. 35
Foundations of Christian Leadership Education. . . . .. 39
Developmental Theories and Curriculum Design . . . .. 42
Other Developmental and Theoretical Considerations . . . .. 54
IV
Christian Higher Education Institutions ... 56
The Purpose of the Curriculum . . . 59
Curriculum Design . . . 60
The Curriculum and Its Methodology . . . 67
Essential Leadership Competencies . . . 75
Applied Competencies in Leadership Degree Programs ... 90
Implications for Christian Leadership Curriculum Development ... 104
Profile of the Current Study . . . .. . . . .. 110
3. METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN. . . .. 112
Purpose Statement. . . .. 113
Research Question Synopsis ... 113
Research Design Overview ... . . . .. 114
Coding Criteria. . . . .. 114
Population . . . .. ... 115
Sample and Delimitations . . . .. 115
Limitations of Generalization . . . .. 116
Research Method and Instrumentation. . . . .. 117
Ethics Committee Process .. . . .. 117
Research Procedures ... 118
4. ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS ... . . .. 124
Compilation Protocol ... 124
Protocols for Data Analysis ... 126
Distributions and Data Summary. . . . .. 129
Findings and Displays by Research Question. . . .. 131
Research Question 1 . . . .. ... 131
Research Question 2 ... 137
v
Research Question 3 . . . .. 148
Research Question 4 . . . .. 151
Research Question 5 ... 157
Excluded Programs ... 161
Evaluation of the Research Design ... . . . .. 162
5. CONCLUSIONS... 164
Appendix Research Purpose ... 164
Research Questions ... . . . .. 165
Research Conclusions . . . .. 166
Implications of the Research. . . . .. 185
Applications of the Research. . . . .. 196
Leaders of Learners: Integration of Principles and Pedagogies ... 205
Limitations of the Research. . . .. 221
Further Research ... ... 222
1. SOURCES FOR COMPETENCY CATEGORIES... 225
2. METHODOLOGY AND CCCU MEMBER SCHOOLS ... 230
3. CONTENT ANALYSIS ORGANIZATIONAL SCHEMA... 240
4. TAXONOMIES... . . . 241
5. RAW DATA AND EXTENDED TABULAR DISPLAYS ... 244
REFERENCE LIST ... . . . .. 268
VI
AACC ATS B.S.M.
B.S.O.L.
CCCU CMS DBU Ed. S.
IABCU IT ITV LAMP LMS LPI M.Ed.
M.A.C.L.
M.A.E.C.L.
M.A.Ed.
M.A.L.S.
American Association of Community Colleges Association of Theological Schools
Bachelor of Science in Management
Bachelor of Science in Organizational Leadership Council for Christian Colleges and Universities Content Management System
Dallas Baptist University Education Specialist
International Association of Baptist Colleges and Universities Information Technology
Internet Television
Learning Asset Management Project Learning Management System Leadership Practices Inventory Master of Education
Master of Arts in Christian Leadership
Master of Arts in Education and Christian Leadership Master of Arts in Education
Master of Arts in Leadership Studies
Vll
M.B.A.
M.E.E.L.
M.L.O.S.
M.S.
M.S.O.L.
M.S.Ed.
M.S.I.L.
SPSS
Master of Business Administration
Master of Education in Educational Leadership Master of Leadership in Organizational Studies Master of Science
Master of Science in Organizational Leadership Master of Science in Education
Master of Science in Instructional Leadership Statistical Package for Social Sciences
V111
Table Page
1. Katzenbach and Smith disciplines by Lawson and Eguizabal . . . .. 77
2. Distribution of programs by category and percentage. . . .. 130
3. Distribution of programs by degree type and percentage. . . .. 130
4. Course titles by rank, subject, query parameters, and frequency . . . .. 133
5. Grouped frequency distribution and cumulative frequency for course. . . .. 136
6. Frequency count and frequency mean by program. . . .. 142
7. Competencies by overall rank and frequencies by program type. . . .. 143
8. Competencies ranked by program category. . . .. 147
9. Objectives by frequency in each program category. . . .. 150
10. Presence of Wood ruffs competencies by frequency. . . . .. 152
11. Presence of Coggins' competencies by frequency . . . .. 153
12. Presence of Flahardy's competencies by frequency. . . . .. 154
13. Correlation analysis: Spearman correlation coefficients. . . . .. 156
14. Presence of Kiedis' taxonomic representations .... . . .. 159
15. Distribution of Leadership Development Models. . . .. 160
16. Analysis of excluded programs. . . . .. 162
AI. Andenoro's competencies ... 226
A2. Barna's leadership competencies ... 226
A3. Woodruff s competencies . . . .. 227
A4. Coggins' competencies. . . . .. 227
A5. AACC competencies. . . .. 228
A6. Flahardy's competencies. . . .. 229
IX
A 7. Great Leader/Great Teacher competencies ... 229
A8. Step-by-step methodology. . . .. 230
A9. CCCU member schools ... 234
AIO. Comparison of Bloom's and revised Bloom's taxonomies. . . .. 241
All. Kiedis' taxonomy. . . .. 243
A12. Examples of excluded programs. . . .. 244
A13. Competencies by overall rank and frequencies by program type. . . .. 246
A14. Course competencies by rank, query parameters, frequency. . . . .. 250
A15. Degree types. . . .. 255
A16. Qualified CCCU programs. . . .. 258
A17. Numerical counts related to content analysis. . . . .. 267
x
Figure Page 1. Grouped frequency distribution for course subjects. . . . .. l37
2. Scatter Plot Correlation Matrix ... '. . . .. 158
3. Kiedis' Taxonomic categories by presence in program.. . . . .. 162
AI. Flowchart for the typical process of content analysis research. . . . .. 232
A2. NVivo 8 Node Organization ... 240
A3. Competencies from study: Precedent studies by rank. . . .. 245
Xl
Many mercies were afforded me by friends and colleagues throughout the tenure ofthis project. It would have never been completed without them. First and foremost, Earnestine, my wife, has been my main support system and encourager. Her sharp mind and incisive critique have increased the value (and coherence) of my writing. Our discussions remain the source for the best of the ideas I have to offer.
I thank our friends from around the country who have provided ongoing encouragement in the way of prayer support. A ladies prayer group, The Mary Lou's, has prayed for us for years. I give thanks for my elder brother in Christ, Larry Gott, with whom I have had an ongoing discussion on a multitude of interests, spiritual and
otherwise, for over a dozen years. His wise ways and lively mind have shown me that lifelong learning is more than a catchphrase, it is a calling.
Special thanks go to my cohorts in this process, the members of CPhD 2, for their camaraderie, encouragement, and good humor. I am grateful as well to my professors at Southern, who challenged suppositions and shared wisdom.
This work would never have been realized without the role several of my former pastors have played in this journey. Dr. A. Duane Litfin, my pastor at First Evangelical Church in Memphis, first affirmed my calling and encouraged me to pursue the Word at a higher academic level. Dr. Gary Inrig, my pastor at Reinhardt Bible Church in Dallas, was my main model for the integration of the Word with all of life.
The teaching of Dr. Bill Lawrence at Northwest Bible Church in Dallas reformed my view of leadership. Dr. Robert Palmer, my pastor at New Covenant Presbyterian Church in Dallas served to encourage me personally during a Midian experience. Dr.
Fred Winters, my pastor at First Baptist Church, Maryville (who was called horne in the xu
leadership abilities in curriculum design, teaching, and discipleship training in the midst of that body. Reverend Tim Lewis, my pastor at Bethel Baptist Church, Troy, Illinois, encouraged and came alongside us at a critical time to help provide redirection and focus.
These men were co-laborers on the journey of life.
Special thanks go to my advisor, Dr. Gary Bredfeldt, without whose guidance and insight I might not have begun this chapter of my calling. He has been a source of iron against which my iron was sharpened. He had the vision to see that Christian leadership occurs not only within the walls of the Church, but on the cultural battlefield as well. His approach has insured that this exercise was more about tearing down walls than creating them.
Thanks also are extended to my second reader, Dr. Michael Wilder, who was also there from the beginning of this pursuit to encourage and serve, and to "raise the bar" of scholarship. His clarity of vision for the program helped to light the way. Thanks to Dr. Shane Parker and Dr. Steve Yates, who provided leadership behind the scenes to insure the process went forward smoothly. Thanks to my statistical consultants, Savitri Appana and Dr. Guy Brock of the University of Louisville Statistical Consulting Center, who affirmed my ideas on the nature of the data analysis. Special regard and thanks go out for the guidance Professor Marsha Omanson provided in regard to style issues.
Finally, and appropriately, I wish to amazedly thank my Lord Jesus, in whom I live and move and find my being (Acts 17:28a). This process, as with all of life,
continues to be an act of worship. I could not have completed it for any other's sake.
Shepherdsville, Kentucky February 2010
X111
Anthony W. Foster
RESEARCH CONCERN
Leadership education has been a major area of focus in many higher education programs for decades, and how leadership development should be taught has been an area of concentrated discourse and discussion across the curriculum. Much of the discussion has become siloed and proprietary, discipline by discipline; in some institutions a variety of formal leadership degree programs co-exist. A preponderance of leadership
approaches and theories now populate the landscape-but where do administrators tum for guidance on how to establish such a curriculum? Prior to this study, no existing compendium of such programs exists. An assertion of the number of such programs in existence could not be validated, much less the defining characteristics of such programs.
Therefore, definitions were in order: in a specific context, existing data was extracted and analyzed to determine the constitution and current state of leadership development in select Christian higher educational institutions. The resulting data then gave insight as to whether existing theoretical models are related to reality.
Introduction to the Research Problem
A key to the stewardship of future prosperity and productivity is in educating new leaders. This holds true especially in Christian higher education. A cursory
examination of advertisements in Christian publications for leadership programs might leave one with the impression that these programs are the most sought after in the
1
Christian world. Yet there is a paucity of reliable and accessible sources of information on what constitutes the curriculum of such programs. Organizations such as the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU) and the Association of Theological Schools (ATS) are sources for general demographic and financial information, but specifics on leadership degree programs requires digging deeply.
This informational dilemma is not reserved solely to Christian programs. As a result of a recent study of premier leadership education programs, Anthony Andenoro asserts:
With little cross curricular communication among formal leadership degree programs, educators across universities are providing similar instruction to their students adding unnecessary redundancy to the student degree plan. Furthermore, these educators may not be teaching critical material to their students that could prove to be valued additions to the current curricula. This situation is a potential problem as students may not be receiving the holistic education that they hope to attain in a leadership degree program. (Andenoro 2005, 1)
Beyond the dearth of coherent informational sources on what constitutes leadership development, another key reality is the changing background against which that leadership must be developed. Current organizational mega-trends point to an emerging value shift that governs the global society (Barrett 2004, 1-3). This value shift is evidenced in the literature as a renewed focus on servant leadership (Greenleaf 2002;
Hesselbein and Goldsmith 2006), social responsibility (Kotler and Lee 2005; Pralahad and Porter 2003), and stewardship (Block 1993,2008; Brinkerhoff2004; Hernandez 2008). This shift calls for a new type of leadership which incorporates the complex abilities to comprehend and facilitate opportunities, challenges, and successes for members through creative means while articulating and balancing the interests of the organization, members, and society as a whole (Alexander 2006, 92-94).
This portends, at the least, a perceived shift in the leadership literature towards values that coincide with biblical notions of leadership and authority. Flexibility and developing the ability to lead teams into the unknown is the way of the future of
leadership studies. David Ulrich held that emerging leaders will be known for what they deliver rather than what they say. "Expertise and competence will displace power and position. . . they will be shapers and directors rather than controllers, and their personal character and credibility will out" (Hesselbein, Goldsmith, and Beckhard 1996, 219).
Barrett further posits that competitive organizations will make nurturing innovation and productivity their top priority by transforming their corporate culture (Barrett 2004, 1-3). Due to this trend, leadership and leadership education will become increasingly complex for the future. Mary Uhl-Bien of the University of Nebraska- Lincoln's Gallup Leadership Institute says, "Leadership occurs when individuals use influence to create change" (Kramer 2008,26-27). This definition considers leadership to be a behavior rather than a formal positional role. These key trends of change must be a consideration for the future of leadership development if the outcomes of such programs are to have efficacy with the constituencies which they are intended to serve.
Yet a disconnect persists between scholarship and practitioners. Voices have arisen from those constituencies that must be heeded. Intagliata, Ulrich, and Smallwood point out, "Despite the significant investments many organizations have made in
competency modeling efforts, the models produced have not necessarily helped them to reach their goal of developing the leaders they want and need" (Intagliata, Ulrich, and Smallwood 2000, 16). Institutions continue to turn to higher education for answers to the need for developing experienced leadership.
Kramer writes, "In the applied fields of leadership and leadership
development, researchers bear a distinct responsibility to engage in the world of practice"
(Kramer 2008,26). Educators within forma11eadership degree programs will be forced to assess and evaluate their curriculum and how they are preparing leaders. As Robert Kramer quotes Noel Tichy, "Leadership is a clinical art, and people need experience"
(Kramer 2008, 28).
Anthony Andenoro writes,
Considering the leadership competencies and the curricula currently taught is also critically important to the "what" as it provides educators with a deeper
understanding of cross-curricular perspectives of leadership and hopefully will lead to better teaching and more holistic curricula. However educational systems have been criticized through out the years for their inability to develop leaders (Gardner
1993). This perspective means that it is paramount for educators to carefully
consider the curricula they develop in an attempt to teach learners the competencies that will allow for them to be successfu11eaders. This content hinges on several considerations, including the student's comfort with the concept ofleadership, identification of the elements of leadership, acceptance that leadership is a process, a heightened awareness of the practice of leadership, establishment of the purpose of leadership, identification of individual strengths and weaknesses on the way to developing a persona11eadership approach, enhancement of analytical skills, and sharing of new and emerging leadership theories (Wren 1994; Lewis 1995; Watt 1995). (Andenoro 2005, 8-9)
The evaluation of the content of leadership degree programs is complicated, considering the vast number of educators across academia attempting to prepare leaders and the variety of competencies needed to be an effective leader. Such evaluation is imperative in order to address the challenges facing a new generation of leaders, organizational mega-trends, and an ever-changing society.
The Christian Perspective on the Problem
Christian leadership is not limited to leadership in the local church. God extends his kingdom into the world by means of sending his people as salt and light into
that world, driving out darkness. As previously noted, casual scan of current Christian media gives the reader the clear impression that leadership is important; what is less than perspicacious is a definition of what constitutes leadership development in the Christian higher educational milieu.
From the Christian standpoint, leadership must embody biblical character, and for any model to be distinctively Christian, it must regard personal integrity and
credibility, character, suffering, trust, transparency empowerment of others, and productive teamwork as imperative values (Thrall, McNicol, and McElrath 1999).
Lifelong learning, humility, pro activity, and a sense of humor are prerequisite to the task (Gangel 2000). The godly leader does all that is necessary to model, maximize, and facilitate those values in the life environment he is operating in (Kouzes and Posner 2004). A leader must be a wise steward before he can be invested with leadership responsibilities. Gangel writes, "Leadership development must set high standards for competence and measure out responsibilities in increasing doses as the competence level grows" (Gangel 1997,250-51). Leadership development is thus a never ending process.
The biblical view of leadership necessarily forms the basis and grid system by which all other insight on leadership is measured and integrated. The Scriptures represent the ultimate authority for life. The plumb line of Christian leadership education must be an adherence to the truth of God's Word. Benware writes, "Leadership authority in the Church is power granted to men to lead the flock of God according to the Word of God, guiding, protecting, and feeding them for their benefit and God's glory" (Benware 1999, 12). This adherence to Scripture is another ability to develop in future leaders.
John Stott offers some distinctive marks of Christian leadership--vision, industry, perseverance, service, and discipline (Stott 2006,85-88,91-93, 100-05,109-14).
It is one thing to define these distinctives biblically; there is no guarantee that these distinctives are inherent in the leadership development programs at Christian institutions.
It is a present reality that people attend such programs to become qualified as potential leadership material. In such an environment, competencies can be tested in the classroom and in real world environments alike. While many institutions and
organizations build on this develop their own "brand" of leaders in-house, educationally based leadership development offers a key entry point into those constituencies.
In the "most extensive study ever done on leadership" (sourced by the U. S.
Chamber of Commerce), the third most cited place people say they learn to lead is from books and school, after experience and models or examples (Manning and Curtis 2007, 6). One might posit that these categories are not mutually exclusive.
Leadership studies within Christian higher education are a key means of preparing leaders for the future. To establish an holistic educational approach to leadership development first requires the establishment of hierarchies of needs and values and the combination of these hierarchies with educational theory to establish a firm foundation. The identification of essential skills required within higher education is an ongoing process, as those skills and attributes are also changing (Hoff 1999, 311).
What Has Been Done
To date, while some research has been pursued from a secular standpoint, very little research has been done to identify competencies and components of the typical curriculum at Christian institutions of higher education. There is currently emerging
pertinent data on which to base valid empirical assertions about Christian Leadership programs (Barnett 2003; Coggins 2004; Woodruff2004; Flahardy 2007). Flahardy specifically recommends in his suggestions for further research that his findings might
"be used to evaluate colleges, or seminaries, course catalogues and syllabi to see if these essential leadership competencies are being taught in their church related programs"
(Flahardy 2007, 147).
In addition, in a recent study of leadership development models, Kiedis (2009) established a taxonomy of curriculum development and delivery models. With the emergence of this taxonomy comes the opportunity to measure how such models are being instituted in the curriculum in Christian higher education This research also initiates a start down that path.
What Needs to Be Done
The defining nature of the skills and competencies which are being taught as part of the curriculum is a basic question at hand. The development of leaders has been the subject of a vast array of studies in the educational literature, but measurements of the application of theory is sparse, especially in the Christian higher educational milieu. A secondary but vital aspect of the educational rationale focuses on curriculum and
instructional design theory, which does not dominate the literature. Research on how such programs are built should be qualified and reported. This research also begins to address that need.
The current study sought to identify and establish a baseline definition of what constitutes leadership education in its recent basic formal manifestations, in regard to the curriculum and general course of study at select institutions. This study also sought to lay
the basic groundwork and make substantial progress in filling that notable absence in the literature base.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this content analysis study is to determine and describe the core courses, program descriptors, stated modes of delivery, and described competencies of post-baccalaureate Leadership Studies curricula in select institutions of Christian higher education.
Research Questions
1. What are the frequency and level of emphasis of core leadership courses of the curricula in the leadership programs at select Christian institutions of higher education?
2. What are the frequency and level of emphasis of the major competencies of the courses as described in the course descriptions of the courses included in the curricula?
3. What are the primary learning objectives, if any, communicated in the program descriptions?
4. How do the competencies identified in this study compare to competencies proposed by select precedent research?
5. Based on Kiedis' Taxonomy (2009), what leadership development model classifications, if any, are evidenced in the curriculum for the programs in the study?
Research Delimitations
The research will be limited to post-baccalaureate programs at the 111 member institutions of the Coalition of Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU).
The research population will consist of texts: catalog program descriptions and course descriptions from courses taught in leadership curricula at CCCU Schools.
To be considered, the degree program must include the word "leadership" in its program description as a key area of competency or area of concentration. Multiple programs based on the same core leadership content will not be included. Additional courses with a "leadership" designation in its title or course code will be analyzed if required for the degree. For the purposes of this study the core course component must include a minimum of fifteen credit hours or units.
Terminology
Administrative model. "The element of a curriculum design which brings together the curriculum design and a target group in such a way as to achieve the purpose and objectives of the design and to implement pre-determined instructional models"
(Ford 2008a, 5).
Christian leadership. The exercise of one's spiritual gifts under the call of God to serve a certain group of people in achieving the goals God has given them toward the end of glorifying Christ (Gangel 1989, 31). In this definition, leadership extends beyond the walls of the church and into the culture at large, to all areas of vocational calling.
Cognitive science. Cognitive science is the study of the human mind. It is an interdisciplinary science that draws upon many fields including neuroscience, psycho- logy, philosophy, computer science, artificial intelligence, and linguistics (Buford and Lindner 2002). The purpose of cognitive science is to develop models that help explain human cognition-perception, thinking, and learning.
Competencies. Proficient abilities usually composed of some combination of knowledge, measurable skills, understanding and values (Knowles 1973, 199). In this
context competencies are further defined as those skills which are necessary to master in order to insure proper preparation for qualified, effective leadership.
Content analysis. Content analysis is a research technique for making
replicable and valid inferences from data to their context by a "summarizing, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the scientific method ... and is not limited as to the types of variables that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented" (Neuendorf 2003, 10; Krippendorff2004, 21).
Content population. In content analysis, the set of messages being studied, or a set of units that the researcher wishes to generalize (Neuendorf 2003, 74).
Curriculum. A course of study including the intrinsic and extrinsic compo- nents of instruction. Wojtczak defines curriculum as "an educational plan that spells out which goals and objectives should be achieved, which topics should be covered and which methods are to be used for learning, teaching, and evaluation" (Wojtczak 2002, 338-39).
Document analysis. An integrated and conceptually informed method, procedure, and technique for locating, identifying, retrieving, and analyzing documents for their relevance, significance, and meaning (Altheide 1996, 2).
Ernie competencies. Those competencies relating to features or items targeted for development with respect to their role within a leadership system. This includes concepts such as the demonstrated understanding of leadership and organizational theory, and the ability to manage change and set strategies (Andenoro 2005, 204).
Etic competencies. Refers to those competencies relating to features or items targeted for development which can be considered outside of their role within a
leadership system. This includes such concepts as self-understanding, communication skills, dynamic viewpoint, and reflection (Andenoro 2005, 204).
Instructional model. An approach to instruction which implements given theories or combinations of theories of learning (Ford 2008a, 12).
Leadership. Leaders inducing followers to act for certain goals that represent the values and the motivations-the wants and needs, the aspirations and expectations- of both the leaders and the followers (Burns 1978, 18).
Leadership competencies. A set of measurable and learnable results-based attributes that successful leaders should possess in order to guide direction, distinguish and differentiate their organization, and help integrate management practices (Intagliata, Ulrich, and Smallwood 2000, 3-5). In this study'S context these are focused on
application.
Leadership development model. For this research a leadership development model is "the primary philosophical and pedagogical bridge designed to transmit and implement the institutional purpose regarding leadership development in the life of the student" (Kiedis 2009, 11). This definition includes the delivery medium utilized to teach the curriculum.
Leadership programs. Post-baccalaureate level higher education degree programs from varying disciplines which teach understanding, application, and synthesis of leadership theory and practice as addressed in this study.
Leadership Practices Inventory. Instrument package developed by Jim Kouzes and Barry Posner which approaches leadership as a measurable, learnable, and teachable
set of behaviors. This 360-degree leadership assessment tool helps individuals and organizations measure their leadership competencies (Kouzes 1998).
Levels of learning. Taxonomies of levels of complexity in learning objectives, progressing in the cognitive domain from simple recall and recognition to the higher levels of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Ford 2008a, 13).
Longitudinal design. In instructional or curriculum design, those features which are taught all along a continuum of instruction, rather than in discrete courses or subject areas.
Objective. A performance action which indicates goal achievement at an appropriate level oflearning (Ford 2008a, 14).
Servant Leadership. "Influencing the attitudes and behavior of people toward the accomplishment of a goal while meeting the needs of people, including followers"
(Hardin 2008, 1).
Taxonomy. "A set of classifications ordered and arranged on the basis of a principle or a consistent set of principles. Well-constructed taxonomies have predictive value and organizational usefulness" (Dettmer 2006, 72).
Transformative Learning Theory. This theory posits that for learners to change their meaning structures-that is, beliefs, attitudes, and emotional reactions-they must engage in critical reflection on their experiences, which in tum leads to a transformation of perspective (Mezirow 1991, 167). This can lead to fundamental change in one's personality involving [together] the resolution of a personal dilemma and the expansion of consciousness resulting in greater personality integration(Boyd 1989,459; Taylor 1998, 13).
Transformational Leadership. "Transforming leadership ... occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality ... transforming leadership ultimately becomes moral in that it raises the level of human conduct and ethical aspiration of both leader and led, and thus it has a transforming effect on both" (Burns 1978, 20).
Research Specific Terminology
Attributes. Variables which contain descriptive information about a participant in the study. Demographic attributes such as gender and age are examples.
Case. An entity in a study such as an institution. Content associated with a particular case is searchable as a casebook.
Coding. Categorizing information into relevant nodes. Coding can occur while reading data content or by associating and sorting information in a secondary manner as free nodes evidence associations, and thus emerge into new categories.
Matrices. A collection of nodes resulting from a matrice coding query, which allows the researcher to compare pairs of of items and display the results in a table or matrix. Each new cell of a matrix becomes a new node in the database.
Model. A graphic visualization of connections and relationships in the data.
Models can be represented in multiple ways including bar charts, graphs, and shapes and connectors.
Node. A node is a collection of references about a specific theme, place, person, or other area of interest. Tree nodes organize references in hierarchies of parent and child nodes. Free nodes hold unassociated references and can give rise to tree nodes as categories emerge.
Methodological Design
The research is descriptive in nature. The study utilized a qualitative research approach involving the content analysis of quantitative data. After the theoretical base was laid, and constructs were defined, the variables to be used in the study were operationalized by input and coding in content analysis software.
The study involved a mUlti-phase process. In the first phase, the complete population of member schools of the CCCU was determined. From those schools, the primary documents were harvested by means of direct contact and existing access to published records. Digital collection and archiving of content texts (curriculum and course catalog entries) yielded a database of content to be analyzed. Where any minimal gaps existed, official institutional course schedules were consulted for supplemental information. Then the documents were analyzed to determine which content from qualifying institutions would be included in the study. Content was then prepared for coding with a computer based system by translating it into digital text if it did not already exist in that format.
The next phase utilized a content analysis approach as the means of
categorizing and analyzing the precedent categories arising from the literature review on leadership competencies. Then the sampled data was coded to these categories into hierarchical tree nodes. Markup was initially accomplished by automatic content analysis coding of the computer texts and sorting according to word and concept mapping. The results formed a concordance of all the words in the database.
Word frequency counts were analyzed. This process allowed categories to arise from the actual texts in the population. The quantitative aspect of the research produced
counts and measurements of these key categories, and patterns of coinciding words and phrases. In addition, a numerical count of mode of delivery occurred in order to address the leadership development models in use, as well as a ranking of programmatic
objectives and course titles revealed in the various curricula. Leadership development models were extracted from the data, and tabulated in regard to Kiedis' taxonomy (2009) as well as by degree program and learning management system. This fact-finding process informed the study in regard to the teaching of the curriculum.
The researcher implemented the NVivo 8 software package from QSR
International for analysis and classification of data. This program enabled the researcher to analyze the contents of the texts in question in reference to the frequency and degree of inclusion of key variables. The final phase involved a comparison of competencies
arising from the content analysis with proposed competencies for Christian leadership development from the precedent research of Coggins (2004), Woodruff (2004), and Flahardy (2007).
Research Assumptions
1. Any content retrieved from the official web repository or sent from a valid institutional email address maintained by the institution will be considered a published resource and will be regarded as such.
2. Each institution has adequately communicated the intent of the curricula in the course descriptions.
3. The institution's documentation is accurate as published.
4. Published documents do not require special permission to be included for anonymous content analysis.
5. Content analysis as posited by Krippendorff and Neuendorf is a valid research methodology.
PRECEDENT LITERATURE
The following literature review was a precursor to the research phase of this study. It covers the subj ect areas of practical leadership competencies and leadership education, as well as literature related to leadership curriculum design. Theological foundations for these areas of study are examined first. Corollary concepts from the literature base are incorporated in theological context. Then the literature base per se is purposefully examined within each subject area. Significant theories within these fields of study are examined in the light of the theological perspectives that emerge. Select precedent research that converges with the scope of this current research plan is given special attention.
BiblicaIlTheological Foundations for Christian Leadership Education
For Christian Leadership to be deemed distinctively Christian, it must find its radix in the biblical and theological constructs that define it. This will address the nature of God, of knowledge, of man, and of the nature of leadership authority.
The Revealed Nature of God
The guiding principle from which all Christian teaching and learning flows is the very nature of God. He is the fountainhead of all Wisdom and knowledge, and one's very life is found in the knowledge of God. This world was not merely God's doing, but
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it was God's purposeful doing (Stelting 1998, 71). This foundational knowability of God sets the Christian's epistemological bearings. Yet there is an infinite gulf between God and man that is expressed in the axiomfinitum non capax infinitum-the finite cannot comprehend the infinite. Millard Erickson writes, "Because mankind is finite and God is infinite, we cannot know God unless he reveals himself to us, that is, unless he manifests himself to humans in such a way that they can know and fellowship with him" (Erickson 2001,42). So while Christians may have true knowledge of God, that knowledge is not exhaustive in nature. Such an understanding demands humility in one's endeavors.
God provides principles in His own leadership that can form a sort of modus operandi for all leaders. God plans (Isaiah 29-32; Jeremiah 29:11-13; 1 Peter 1:20). Then He communicates his plan (Hebrews 1:1-2; Deuteronomy 10:12). He requires and calls others into service, maximizing and then utilizing the energies and service of others as He guides them (2 Chronicles 16:9). He directs (Proverbs 16:9), and evaluates, (Heb 4: 12) as His word separates between bone and marrow. He calls to account (Luke 16:2), rewards (l Corinthians 3:8), and punishes justly (Hebrews 9:27; Revelation 20:13). Exodus 25-40 mirrors this coherent illustration of God's way of leading. That this leadership approach must be under submission to the One Head is evident. We only have delegated authority and it is not our plans or purposes that are in view, but the good of mankind and the glory of God. Yet this approach can inform how we might see multiple tenets from a variety of approaches integrated into the Kingdom.
Wegner adds, "There are things we could never know about God by merely observing creation; it is necessary that He reveal them to us" (Wegner 1999, 28).
A first distinctive, therefore, must acknowledge and reckon the truth of the infinite qualitative difference between God and humankind. One must not mistake instruction for inspiration, or teaching for redemption and salvation. Education is a key tool for apprehending and realizing God's purposes and any leadership education must address common objections to Truth in a pre-evangelistic manner; metaphorically and parabolically, it is a tilling of soils in cases where the soil is hard (Matthew13, Mark 4, Luke 8) and of nurture where the soil is receptive.
Powell writes that "there are many elements of order found in the creation account, establishment of governance in Israel's history, the cycle of Old Testament judges, and the earthly life and ministry of Jesus. Each of these suggests God is careful in His discharge of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and evaluating functions (Powell 2008, 36-37).
Gangel defines Christian leadership from the perspective of the pre-eminence of God's revealed will: Christian leadership is "the exercise of one's spiritual gifts under the call of God to serve a certain group of people in achieving the goals God has given toward the end of glorifying Christ" (GangelI989a, 31). This definition has in view God's call, his goals, and his end. Christian axiology rightly values the glory of God as its prime value. All one does as one lives, moves and has one's being (Acts 17:24) in Christ should be with a view to promote his sovereign rule over all things in all disciplines and at all times. Christians must instill Kingdom driven ambitions (John 3:30) as Christ is seen as becoming greater as one's self becomes less. James Champy links ambition to the drive for excellence as one seeks to learn from mistakes and develop vision (Champy 2000, 18-
19). David Stark points to this transformational leadership as Christians lead others to realize the greater good for the" good of the whole" as God's revealed will is sought and not one's own (Stark 2005, 149).
Biblical Authority
The Christian witness is that God has revealed himself and the nature of reality in the Scriptures. Thus the principles of Christian higher education are necessarily built on biblical authority (Bredfeldt 2006, 67). Psalm 119 tells us that God's Word is Truth.
It is without error (Psalm 12:6); Jesus himself incarnates that Truth (John 14:4). He is fullness of the image and likeness of God (Ephesians 4; Colossians 1: 15-20).
A real tension exists in present reality between the call for believers to operate in a last-shall-be-first paradigm and the pursuit of excellence. A biblical understanding of authority can point the way forward as leaders approach all they do as being done in the name of the Lord (Colossians 3: 17-18). Leaders find the resolution of this paradox in Paul's contention in Colossians 1 :28 that he should strive with all His (Christ's) might to accomplish the task of presenting those in his charge as complete in Christ.
The Imago Dei and the Nature of Man
God created man in the imago Dei (Genesis 1 :26) and set forth a cultural mandate to steward creation (Genesis 1 :27-28). In the beginning, Adam chose to seek after that which was forbidden him-to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, and thus he committed sin in devaluing the glory and perfection of God's Word to him.
Christians believe this happened in time and space and sets the course of Creation, Fall and Redemption that believers now operate under in anticipation of the consummation of all things (Plantinga 2002, 48-50, 127).
A cornerstone of establishing any theology of education is the nature of man, and this issue underscores millennia of discourse (N oddings 2007, 16-17). The
foundational biblical notion is that man is fallen and was not created to be self-sufficient.
Man has a mandate to be a steward over creation (Genesis 1 :27 ff.), but man is not to be dependent upon himself and his methodologies to achieve and subjugate the environment.
Rather, man is created in and as the image of God and as such, respect and dignity should be accorded every human. The image of God is hideously distorted because of the fall, but the basic characteristics of humanness derive from its presence and persistence.
The image of God has often been spoken of in more than one sense. In the broad sense, man is spoken of as retaining the image of God after the fall. This sense incorporates the developmental attributes of spirituality, rationality, and dominion. In the narrower sense, man had nevertheless lost some aspects of the image of God: knowledge, holiness and righteousness. He only regains these attributes by being placed in Christ, but these qualities are then developed over time by knowing God, another developmental process. Man is the "image and glory of God" (1 Corinthians 1 :7) changed from glory to glory by the supernatural superintending of the Spirit of God. This glory is reflected in a royal, judicial, ethical, and physical imaging as man mirrors God (Kline 1977,2-27).
As a creature, man is intrinsically limited in his ability to know, yet that which is revealed to him is perspicacious and clear. In the biblical economy, men learn by instruction in righteousness, study, meditation, experience, appropriation of blessing and cursing, suffering, and correctly apprehending reality through revelation (natural and supernatural). Christian leadership education seeks to partner with the Holy Spirit in leading humans to the Truth, and once supernaturally apprehended, seeking to help them grow to maturity (Colossians 1 :28-29). The comprehensive purpose of special revelation is the reestablishment of the full communion of sinful people with God (Lewis and Demarest 1987, 122).
God's redemptive purposes in the cross of Christ includes a restorative
process. A key aspect of redemption is the progressive restoration of the imago Dei. One major interpretation of the nature of the fall alluded to by Alvin Plantinga is found in the idea that after the fall, man was no longer cognitively able to apprehend the glory of God (Planting a 2001,299). First Timothy 6:2 tells us that spiritual discernment is not the result of profane reasoning. Paul quotes Isaiah in telling us in 1 Corinthians 1: 19-21 that God has made the wisdom of this world foolishness and the foolishness of the cross is true wisdom.
A Christian View of the Curriculum
Pazmino does a creditable job of laying the foundations for general Christian Education (Pazmino 1997,52). This writer posits that the general informs the specific area of Leadership studies in a Christian framework. Pazmino initially bases his foundation in the deliberative tone of the Shema (Deuteronomy 6: 1-9) and then further fleshes out the concept of responsiveness in Deuteronomy 30-31. Education must be intergenerational (Psalm 78) and shared, as seen in the Wisdom literature. Teachers must foster understanding and obedience (Nehemiah 8: 1-18) as men are accountable to God (the Prophetic literature). From a New Testament perspective, Christians must use their minds for Christ according to Colossians 3 and Philippians 2. The Holy Spirit alone empowers spiritual wisdom (1 Corinthians 2:6-16).
One benefit that issues from the pursuit of the "Great Commandment"-loving God with heart, soul and mind (Matthew 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27)- is the
overturning of what the Bible calls "foolishness." This can be a lack of knowledge or a lack of discernment, but ultimately it issues in instruction about man's approach to life in
covenant with Yahweh. Life mastery is in view (Proverbs 8:32-36). Right action and conduct depends on obedience to the will of God, rather than theoretical insight. This requires moving beyond the merely empirical, as it requires "living in the light of the unseen." Second Corinthians 4: 18 says, "So we fix our eyes not on what is seen, but on what is unseen. For what is seen is temporary, but what is unseen is eternal."
The inward, holistic dimensions of human existence are in view, a rather oriental view of man and wisdom. According to Eichrodt, Wisdom is a mode of existence before God, not primarily adherence to a body of knowledge. The cross turns the world's wisdom into foolishness (1 Corinthians 1 :29-31). Minds are closed to the wisdom of God revealed in creation and attempt to create their own wisdom (Romans 1: 18). The Old Testament terms that refer to the mind or reason include heart, spirit and soul, but they are not limited to these meanings. This limited vocabulary is pregnant with meaning.
Also in view is a balance between the sovereignty of God and the responsibility of man.
The biblical concept of "mind" holds these in tension (Eichrodt, 1961, 131-50).
From a biblical perspective, the cognitive, spiritual, and moral aspects of wisdom are evidenced in Scripture, just as they are evidenced in the imago Dei. Issler and Habermas add a fourth category to the behavioral, cognitive, and affective domains, the last of which they feel has become a catch-all for anything that is not cognitive or behavioral in nature. They differentiate between values and motivation, and what is more clearly of the affections, such as emotion and feeling. In this "dispositional" domain (Issler and Habermas 1994, 40-42) one learns by disciplining the will. Wisdom is to be gotten (Proverbs 4:5,7), sought, (Proverbs 23:23) and learned (Proverbs 4:1). Yet it remains a gift from God (Psalm 119:34). Hearing is not a guarantee of understanding
(Daniel 12:8). God makes apprehension possible, but man is responsible to employ the mind to so apprehend the Truth.
Biblical Leadership Authority
As one writer contends, "Leadership is largely about authority-acquiring it, using it, and investing it in others" (Briner and Pritchard 1998, 76). Leaders who
understand their God-appointed role, and whose rules of engagement with the world are defined by the Word of God can be empowered to effectiveness. This attains in the so- called secular world as well as elsewhere in the Kingdom of God. All leadership authority comes from God, as defined in Romans 13: 1-7. Therefore, leadership is a calling. The cultural mandate requires that humans rule over creation (Hoekema 1986, 79-80). To rule is to stand before, to lead, and to attend to (Vine 1984, 989), which indicates care and due diligence. In 1 Timothy 3:4-5 caring and ruling are closely related. Luke 22:26 tells us that the leader is to be the one who serves. In the New Testament, power is not the emphasis, it is the responsibility of the leader that is paramount.
In New Testament terms, authority is the ability, capability, and right to perform an action (Vine 1984,91). Luke 12:5 posits that God is the source of all power and authority. As defined previously, leadership authority in the church is the "power granted to men to lead the flock of God according to the Word of God, guiding,
protecting, and feeding them for their benefit and God's glory" (Benware 1999, 12). If all leadership authority comes from God, then a case is to be made that the same basic principles should govern all leadership by its God-given nature, whether in the church or the moral universe at large.
Also implicit in the biblical idea of authority is a mandate, warrant, or license to perform. Since all authority is delegated, leaders must give an account to God
(Hebrews 13: 17). The delegated nature of authority should be cause for humility for those who lead.
That God delegates authority to man and not angels is perhaps an evidence of how God often empowers the lesser to be the greater. The godly leader is then a picture, a demonstration of what dependence on God can accomplish. Ephesians 4: 11-16 gives another reason-authority is given for the benefit of the followers. Leaders are to feed and lead, and help those under their authority grow. To abuse this privilege brings severe condemnation, as seen in Jeremiah 23:1-40 and Ezekiel 34:1-10.
Biblical Models for Leadership
Creative processes form the basis for true leadership and men created in God's image can offer something worth hearing on the matter based on their experience stem- ming from a sovereign call as leaders. The Bible provides many principles from the Old Testament paradigm of Prophet, Priest and King as leaders. However, one should realize that since we already have a perfect Prophet and Priest who is our King, we should look to his incarnation of those principles for any model we might employ in the Kingdom.
The study will move progressively toward the key biblical model of servant leadership, which is perfectly modeled by Christ. That concept is more about attitude towards God and man than positioning in a hierarchy. While there is a spiritual gift of leadership, leadership competencies are required by all who are in a position of authority.
The Spiritual Gift of Leadership
Lawrence says of the gift of leadership,
Leadership then is more than a skill to be learned, though it certainly includes this. Unless the basic capacity to lead is present as a gift from the Holy Spirit, one cannot be a Christian leader. Later the point will be made that a Christian leader must be controlled by the Spirit; however, one must have a capacity for leadership from the Spirit in the first place or no amount of control will produce the skill necessary for spiritual leadership .... This gift, like other spiritual gifts, is
sovereignly distributed by the Spirit at salvation and is not a matter of human choice or human effort ... The fact that the Holy Spirit is the source of leadership capacity and that leaders are chosen sovereignly by Him produces freedom from pride and arrogance among those who are responsive to Him .... The gift of leadership is discovered and developed in the same way as other spiritual gifts, that is, through life experience, training, and the maturing process. Even though it is the product of the Spirit's presence and God's grace, this gift requires diligence, faithfulness, hard work, and commitment if it is to be exercised effectively. (Lawrence 1987,321)
Gangel writes, "The spiritual gift of leadership seems to emphasize serving others, personal care, and feeding which meets needs and encourages growth" (Gangel 1989,39). In Romans 12:8 the gift ofleadership appears with the connotation of
"presiding, conducting, directing, or governing" (Gangel 1997, 37). Gangel held that the gifts of administration and leadership are probably two different gifts although they are closely linked. All the words used for leadership emphasize the servant leadership concept Jesus initiated in the Gospels (Gangel1997, 61).
Model and Teaching of the Apostle Paul
The guiding principle from Paul that is seen as undergirding this view derives from 1 Corinthians 1 :28: "God has chosen the things that are not, that he might nullify the things that are." God does this in ways that take us in through the back door. He moves circumstances and even heaven and earth to form the leaders He chooses to use.
True leaders cannot manipulate themselves into that role. In Paul's life it took almost thirty years before he clearly became a leader of leaders. It took time and suffering in Paul's life. Paul's commission in Acts 9:15-16 says, "I will show him how much he must suffer for My name's sake."
When defending his qualifications, Paul most consistently eschewed his accomplishments in favor of his sufferings as a source of authority. His catalogues of hardship (1 Corinthians 4:9-13; 2 Corinthians 6:3-5, 11 :23-30) demonstrated his authority and influence were not tied to position or office. His favorite designation of himself was
"fellow worker," an uniquely Pauline term.
In God's economy, respect, power, and influence are not based on education, accomplishments, or position, but most often upon persevering in work that often has no earthly privilege or accolades. Every time Paul told people to "imitate me," it was in terms of suffering, humility and hardship. Don Carson believes that the "best Christian leadership cannot simply be appointed. It is forged by God himself in the fires of suffering, taught in the school of tears. There are no shortcuts" (Carson 1990, 90). Thus, suffering is not to be sought after, but is also not to be avoided out of fear. Fear is the opposite of faith.
Paul, by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, further ascertains the qualifications of leadership in 2 Timothy chapter 2 by referencing the leadership metaphors of a teacher (2:2) who is also a diligent student and faithful equipper of others; a soldier (2:3-4) who is aligned with God's plans, willing to accept hardship and hopeful to gain Christ's approval; an athlete (2:5) who is self-disciplined and who is motivated by the hope of future reward; a farmer (2:6) who toils diligently and yet nurtures his own spirit; a workman (2:15) who is accountable to God and who seeks God's approval on his work, and accordingly handles God' s Word carefully; a vessel (2:21) who purifies himself from error and contamination; and a slave (2:24-25a) who is in submission to the Master's will and who displays a compelling disposition and conduct. This composite view may not be
exhaustive, but it is indeed compelling in regard to leadership qualities required for effective service (Hiebert 1976,213-29).
The key attributes one observes in the Apostle Paul's model ofleadership are humility and will. These are the same qualities that characterize Jim Collins' "Level 5 Leader" (Collins 2001, 35-38). Unfortunately, Collins associates this with fanatical drivenness (Collins 2001, 39). Gangel paints a realistic portrait of the tenacity of will, teachableness, and humility Paul evidenced (Gangel 1997, 83-85). Paul's submission as a bondservant to his Lord marks the way to keep a focus on the proper estimation of self as well as protects one from looking to inferior sources for provision.
Michael Cooper raises a reasonable call to guard against deriving leadership models from the world. He states,
It often appears that many of our church leaders and professors of practical theology look to business as much as Scripture for leadership principles. While there are those like Ford (1991), Cedar (1987), and Sanders (1967) who draw explicitly from Scripture, a cursory look at the bibliographies or footnotes of Barna (1996), Logan (1989), or Maxwell (1998) reveals a decade of reliance upon leadership principles drawn from business. (Cooper 2005, 48)
He goes on to posit a possible danger in teaching leadership that draws from business practices (Cooper 2005, 59). When the practice becomes a standard that abrogates the primacy of Scripture, the Christian has been conformed to the world (Romans 12:2). While the article focuses on Christian leadership as leadership in Church ministry, one must hold forth the potential for integrating helpful practices from truth discovered by profane minds and remaining distinctively Christian. Cooper is correct in saying that the Word of God is the source of authority-and this writer must posit that this attains wherever Christians are called to serve, for the leader grows in accordance with the Pauline notion of conformation to Christ as he practices what he believes.
The Shepherd Metaphor:
Guard and Guide
The shepherd is a dominant biblical leadership metaphor. The shepherd guards and guides in an alternative to the world's paradigm (Bredfeldt 2006,52). Laniak
provides a thorough examination of the Bible's rich pastoral traditions-from Moses and David, through Psalm 23 and the Old Testament Prophets, to the Gospels'
respresentations of the Good Shepherd, and those he calls as undershepherds (Laniak 2001). His 21,000 word essay of biblical theology provides a foundation for
understanding the enduring nature of Christian leadership. Trust is the key relational factor that undergirds this framework. Shepherds must look out for the interests of others and attend to their needs for their good and God's glory.
This view, taken alone, can lead to imbalances !is it can also paint a picture of the all sufficient shepherd and the stupid, totally reliant sheep. This is unrealistic.
The model of the shepherd does not provide a comprehensive picture of the relationship of the congregation to its leaders; ... hence the biblical image of the shepherd is insufficient as a comprehensive model. ... it is evocative, but imprecise, instructive, but incomplete. (Litfin 1982, 59-60)
One cannot be a true leader unless one is capable of charting a desired destination for followers (Barna 1992, 98).
The Metaphor of the Steward:
Train, then Reign
The first two chapters of Genesis provide a foundation for God's view of culture and man's responsibility in it. These chapters contain what is generally called the
"cultural mandate," God's instructions concerning the care of His creation. Included in this is the concept of "stewardship." Stewards are to manage another's property, finances, or other affairs or take responsibility to make decisions that will allow resources to be
maintained or flourish in a healthy manner. Joseph provides a model of the ultimate steward in the Scriptures.
In the parable in Luke 19: 12-13, the master gave the steward a resource and said, "Do business till I come." Leaders either qualify or disqualify themselves from a life of service by the way they steward that which is in their purview. The test is measured by faithfulness to what was given. First Corinthians 4:2 says, "it is required in stewards that one be found faithful." Leaders who have authority should be expected to be responsible to the Lord as stewards for their use of that authority. Faithful leaders will be rewarded by Christ (1 Peter 5:4). In Christian terms, all leaders are shepherds under authority the Chief Shepherd. Some leaders simply do not acknowledge this in this world.
The Metaphor of the Servant:
The Model and Teaching of Christ
Leaders, in an attempt to offset authoritarianism, can tend to overemphasize their roles as a servant. Service becomes unbalanced as they try to be all things to those being led. This distortion of a leader's function can easily lead to burnout, running around trying to meet everyone's needs, and leaving the followers wondering who is in charge and what direction they are heading. Servants should never cease to be shepherds.
Biblical servant leadership must see the servant as first the servant of the Lord, and that service is as unto the Lord.
Jesus modeled the kind of leadership God requires. Philippians 2 beautifully declares this to be the very attitude of Christ. In Mark 10:35-45 Jesus teaches the concept of servant leadership as seen reflected in the operating principles of the Kingdom. James and John did not understand that suffering must precede the position of authority. There is leadership authority that comes simply from having a position of authority. This is the
common type of authority that is evidenced in the fallen world. This type of authority is legitimate, and indeed needed, but this type of authority is also easily perverted into authoritarianism and despotism. Domination, overpowering, and controlling others is an abuse of positional authority (Inrig 1976, 94-95). Kenn Gangel visits the concept in Feeding and Leading (GangeI1989, 258-60) and in Coaching Ministry Teams (Gangel 2000) more than 25 pages are devoted to the idea.
In Mark 10:43 Jesus says, "but it is not so among you." There is another brand of leadership authority beyond that of position. It is derived from serving others. Those who serve others by meeting real human needs will see an increase in their leadership authority. Serving others establishes a sort of authority in that person's life. This is the lifeblood of authority. Leading from position only will lead to rebellion or immaturity, and leading only by serving will lead to confusion and burnout.
Parallels to the Biblical Models in the Leadership Literature
Key themes that parallel the biblical witness are evidenced in the literature base at large. One may take an eclectic approach and learn from what the Lord has revealed to the non-Christian if one critically appropriates the information and filters it through a coherent and rigorous biblical grid in order so sift the underlying suppositions.
The Apostle Paul-Character and Calling
The notion of calling pervades Paul's writings. In The Leader a/the Future 2, Richard J. Leider emphasized the importance of "calling" in the life of a servant leader (Hesselbein and Goldsmith 2006, 289-95), but here, the notion of calling is sub-biblical.
The call is self-generated. Others make a similar point (Kouzes and Posner 2002, 112).
The Extraordinary Leader incorporates a very helpful chapter (Zenger and Folkman 2002,157-75) on learning from one's mistakes, though it falls short of biblical repentance. The authors show the way to turning failure and flaws into learning
experiences that strengthen the leader's competencies. Kotter (Kotter 1996, 182-83) points to lifelong learning and the importance of establishing a sense of urgency and the communication of change vision as crucial attributes of a leader. The ongoing,
progressive nature of the illustrations in the Second Timothy passage are in alignment with this. Kotter's eight-stage process could be said to mirror the approach of the early missionary journeys in critical ways. As an aside, Kotter also offers helpful
differentiations between management and leadership.
The Steward in Secular Literature
Edgar Schein (Hesselbein and Goldsmith 2006, 260-62) portrays the stewardship of creative talent as a key ability leaders must master in the twenty-first century. Spears (Spears 1998, 162-63) anachronistically attributes teaching on stewardship to pre-biblical voices. Gloria Gilbert Mayer, in her book Goldilocks on Management (Mayer and Mayer 1999, 234) focuses on the stewardship of positioning, change, human assets, regulations and rules, and expertise to provide clarity and consistency in organizations. The focus on human assets does stop short of commodifying people, so it proves to be helpful.
The most influential book, now nearly fifteen years old, from the literature on stewardship comes from Peter Block, who promotes stewardship as an umbrella idea to manage changes in power distribution in the workplace. Thus it becomes largely de- Christianized and managerial in its focus. Stewardship is "the willingness to be
