Accepted: 12/03/2023, Reviewed: 06/06/2023, Published: 31/07/2023
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STARCH NOODLES BASED ON SORGHUM FLOUR (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) AND SAGO FLOUR
(Metroxylon Sp)
Marningsih Doko Patty1*, Erni Sofia Murtini2 dan Widya Dwi Rukmi Putri2 1) Postgraduate Program of Agricultural Product Technology, Faculty of Agricultural
Technology, Universitas Brawijaya
Veteran Street, Malang, 65126 East Java Indonesia
2) Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Universitas Brawijaya,
Veteran Street, Malang, 65126 East Java Indonesia
*Corresponding Author, Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT
Sorghum is one of the local commodities that has the potential to be developed into alternative food products. Sorghum is a gluten-free source of protein, vitamins, minerals and calories. This study aims to determine the effect of the proportion of sorghum flour and sago flour on physical and chemical characteristics and determine the best treatment for dry noodles. The experimental design used a completely randomised design with one factor, that is the proportion of sorghum flour and sago flour consisting of 6 levels (80:20; 75:25; 70:30;
65:35; 60:40; 55:45) grams. The results showed that the proportion of sorghum flour and sago flour affected the physical characteristics of colour, breakage, elongation, cooking time, cooking shrinkage, and water absorption, but had no effect on breaking point. The best behaviour was produced in the proportion of 60 grams of white sorghum flour and 40 grams of sago flour which was then chemically analysed to have a moisture content of 11.90%, fat content of 0.24, ash content of 1.15%, protein content of 5.98%, and carbohydrate content of 80.79%.
Keywords: Dry noodles, Sorghum flour, Sago flour INTRODUCTION
Noodles made from wheat flour have recently gained tremendous popularity in Asian countries and beyond. However, wheat flour is considered unsafe for celiac patients as they are allergic to wheat protein (Yadav & Agarwala, 2011). A gluten-free diet allows celiac disease patients to fulfil their daily nutritional needs without experiencing negative consequences.
Noodles made from starch are an excellent substitute for noodles made from wheat flour as starch is one of the components often used to improve the texture and structure of gluten-free dishes. The physicochemical parameters of starch noodles determine their qualitative properties as they do not contain gluten (Chang et al., 2006). The aesthetic characteristics of raw and cooked noodles determine the quality of the noodles. When cooked for a long time, high-quality starch noodles should have translucent strands with low solid loss and good tensile strength (Collado et al., 2001). Noodles have long been made using vegetable starch, especially in Indonesia. Dried noodles are a type of noodle made from starch-based dough.
Products dried to a moisture content of about 8-10% are known as dried noodles (Safriani et al., 2013).
Sorghum is one of the local commodities that has the potential to be used as an alternative food. Sorghum is a cereal that does not contain harmful peptides such as gliadin.
According to genomic, biochemical and immunochemical studies, this sorghum is beneficial as a nutritious and gluten-free grain and is suitable for consumption by people with celiac disease (Pontieri et al., 2013). Dried noodles can be made from sorghum seeds by processing them
Jurnal Pangan dan Agroindustri Vol.11 No.3: 147 - 157, Juli 2023 into sorghum flour. About 82% of sorghum flour is starch, with the rest consisting of protein, fat, and other ingredients (Armanda et al., 2016). Sorghum and sago flour can be used to make flour-based dry noodles. When applied to processed foods in the form of noodles, foods that do not contain gluten require the addition of additional emulsifiers to give the noodles a chewy quality, firm texture, stable shape, absorbency, and binding strength (Rahayu et al., 2019).
Sago flour is relatively high in carbohydrates compared to other commodities, and its availability is abundant but not yet fully exploited. The energy content of sago flour is close to that of other staple flours such as corn, cassava, rice, potatoes and wheat flour. Sago flour can be used as a raw material in food production or as a food additive (Astawan, 2009). Sago flour is reported to have a high starch content of 93.76%, which is dominated by amylopectin 73%
and amylose only 27% (Nisah et al., 2015). Dry noodles can be produced from sorghum flour and sago flour. The combination of these two raw materials can produce high quality dry noodles with a taste similar to wheat dry noodles. From the above description, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of the proportion of sorghum and sago flour on the physical and chemical properties and to determine the best treatment for dry noodles.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The research was conducted for 8 months from January 2020 to August 2020 at the Laboratory of Food Processing and Engineering and Agricultural Products, Laboratory of Biochemistry of Agricultural Food Products, Laboratory of the Centre for Life Sciences, Brawijaya University Malang, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Brawijaya University Malang.
Materials
The materials used for the preparation of dry noodles were white sorghum flour imported from Sabu Island, East Nusa Tenggara province, commercial sago flour, tapioca flour, cassava flour, egg white flour, salt, carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), carrageenan, and water. Materials used for chemical analysis were distilled water, filter paper, 0.1 N HCl, petroleum ether, 0.26 N H2SO4, 25% HCl, 10% K2SO4 solution, 45% NaOH, concentrated H2SO4, nelson reagent, Arsenomolobdat, anti-foam substance, pp indicator, 95% alcohol, 25% meta phosphoric acid, arsenomolybdat reagent, folin reagent, boric acid, kjeldal tablet, methyl red, Na2CO3, Rochelle salt and litmus paper.
Tools
The tools used in this research are noodle maker machine (Signora), cabinet dryer (Memmert), analytical balance (Metter Toledo), plastic basin, pot, gas stove, spoon, porous plastic, cabinet dryer, flouring tool (Disc mill), The tools used for analysing physical and chemical properties are analytical scales, desiccators, electric ovens, titration devices, a set of kjeldahl distillation apparatus, a bath, a furnace, a soxlet waterbath, porcelain chairs, stopwatches, cups, stoves, measuring pipettes, spectrophotometers, and silica.
Research Design
The experimental design used was a completely randomised design (CRD) with one factor, the proportion of sorghum and sago flour (80:20; 75:25; 70:30; 65:35; 64:40; 55:45 (g)) and 4 repetitions, giving 24 experimental units.
Research Stages
The production of dry noodles starts with the preparation of ingredients such as white sorghum flour, sago flour, tapioca flour, cassava flour, egg white flour, salt, carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), carrageenan and water. In the first step, sago sol was prepared by adding boiling water to sago flour. The suspension was heated while stirring until it gelatinised. The next step is to mix the sago sol with all the other dry ingredients by kneading the ingredients for 10-15 minutes. After the dough is formed, a noodle maker is used to form the noodles into sheets. The shaped noodles are neatly arranged on a baking tray and then placed in the steaming stage for 10-15 minutes. The steamed noodles are then cooled at room temperature
for 5 minutes and then dried in an oven at a temperature of 600C for 5-6 hours and dry noodles are produced.
Methods
The data obtained were quantitative and were then tested using parametric statistics of the general linear model (GLM) ANOVA with 95% confidence interval. This was followed by an analysis of interactions between factors and Tukey's further test (significance level p < 0.05), using Minitab 17 software. The Zeleny method (Zeleny, 1998) was used to select the best treatment of dried noodles and further chemical analysis of dried noodles was carried out.
Analysis Procedure
Physical analyses were carried out on the 6 treatments of dried noodles identified, including colour (brightness), breakage, elongation, cooking time, cooking loss and water absorption. The analysis of colour brightness was carried out by reading the colour scale on a colour reader with the parameter L* ( Lightness) (Yuwono, 1998). The best dried noodles were then selected using Derringer's Desirability Function method. Tensile strength analysis was carried out by placing the noodles on the tool and slowly reducing the load until the noodles broke, the value displayed on the screen was expressed in Newton units (Yuwono, 1998).
Breaking strength analysis was carried out by placing mature noodles ± 3 cm long on the hook of the tensile strength tool, then pulling the noodles by the tool until they broke, the value listed on the screen was calculated as the breaking strength of the noodles (Yuwono, 1998).
Elongation analysis was carried out by placing a sample of noodles on the tensile strength tool, then the machine was run to pull the noodles until they broke, the value listed on the tool was then calculated in the formula by subtracting 15 (the length of the reading scale limit on the tool), then divided by 3 (the length of the initial sample) and multiplied by 100% (Yuwono, 1998). Cooking time analysis was performed by cooking 5 grams of noodles in 75 ml of boiling water until complete gelatinisation, the time taken for the white spot in the middle of the noodles to disappear was calculated as the cooking time value (Singh, 2002). Cooking loss analysis was performed by subtracting the dry weight of the noodle sample before boiling from the constant dry weight of the noodle after boiling, then dividing by the dry weight of the sample before boiling and multiplying by 100% (Huang, 2010). Water absorption analysis was performed by subtracting the weight of the noodles after cooking from the weight of the noodles before cooking. The result of the reduction was then divided by the weight of the noodles before cooking and multiplied by 100% (Yuwono, 1998).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
1. Physical Characteristics Of Dry Noodles Colour (lightness L*)
Values between 0 and 100 are used for the brightness representation (L*) of dark or light colours; the higher the number, the brighter or whiter the tmaterial (Pathare et al., 2013). The graph of the effect of the ratio of sorghum flour to sago flour on the brightness value of dried noodles is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 shows that the different proportions of white sorghum flour and sago flour determine the colour value or lightness (L*) of the dried noodles; the lightness of Bu dried noodles tends to increase with increasing amounts of sago flour. The average value range of the colour or lightness value of the dried noodles when combined with white sorghum flour and sago flour was 60.93-69.73. A higher formulation of sorghum flour affects the colour of the dried noodles, which is usually brownish white. Compared to sago flour, which has a bright white colour and no tannin, sorghum flour has a more intense blackish-white colour, probably because sorghum flour contains 0.21% tannin. Sago flour does not contain tannins. Tannins in foods cause the colour of processed foods to darken due to protein-tannin interactions and oxidation events mediated by the enzyme phenol oxidase (Kusnandar, 2011). The Maillard reaction also occurs when noodles are steamed (Yuwono et al., 1998).
Jurnal Pangan dan Agroindustri Vol.11 No.3: 147 - 157, Juli 2023
72 70 68 66 64 62 60 58 56
80:20 75:25 70:30 65:35 60:40 55:45
Figure 1. Graph of Average Lightness Value of Dry Noodles at Proportion of Sorghum and Sago Flour
Breakage
A measure of noodle breakage during production shows the resistance of the noodles during production handling, especially to mechanical treatment. An increase in the breakage value results in noodles that are difficult to break (Yuwono & Susanto, 1998). The graph of the effect of sorghum flour to sago flour ratio on the breakage of dry noodles is shown in Figure 2.
7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00
80:20 75:25 70:30 65:35 60:40 55:45
Figure 2. Graph of Average Breakage Value of Dry Noodles at the Proportion of Sorghum and Sago Flour
Figure 2 shows that the greater the amount of sago flour, the value of the breakage strength of the dried noodles due to the different proportions of sorghum and sago flour also tends to increase. The dried noodles with a mixture of white sorghum and sago starch had an average value of breakability that varied from 3.15 to 5.97 N. This indicates that the noodles became harder with the addition of sago starch. The higher levels of amylopectin and low amylose produce dough that is easily attached because the attractive force of starch is stronger than the kinetic energy of water molecules (Rahayu et al., 2019). CMC which functions as a stabiliser also affects the magnitude of the breaking force. The tendency of CMC in solution to produce cross-links in polymer molecules results in trapping solvent polymers in them, allowing solvent molecules to remain immobile to form rigid and pressure-resistant molecular structures (Kamal, 2010). The cross-linking strengthens the hydrogen bonds in the starch matrix, causing
a
b b
c c
d
a
a a
a
a a
Breakage (N) Lightness (L*)
the amylose and amylopectin molecules to tend to form their own hydrogen bonds, making the gel more compact.
Breaking Point
The breaking point of noodles is the value of the force required to break the strands of noodles, and the basis of the assessment is that the increasing value of the breaking point indicates that the noodles tend to be more elastic (Chansri et al., 2005). The effect of the ratio of sorghum flour to sago flour on the tensile strength of dried noodles is shown in Figure 3.
2.50
a 2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
80:20 75:25 70:30 65:35 60:40 55:45
Figure 3: Graph of the Average Breaking Point Value of Dry Noodles with Proportion of Sorghum and Sago Flour
In Figure 3, it can be seen that when the proportions of white sorghum flour and sago flour were varied, the breaking point of the dried noodles tended to increase as the amount of sago flour increased. The average of the results of the study of the breaking power of dry noodles made with a mixture of sago flour and white sorghum flour varied between 0.80 and 2.03 N. The incident shows that the chewy texture of the noodles is produced by the different concentrations of amylose and amylopectin when sago flour is added (Satin, 1988). In addition, hydrocolloids such as carrageenan and CMC can also bind water and form strong gels (Rahayu et al., 2019). This property gives the finished noodles a strong firmness and prevents them from breaking when cooked (Estiasih, 2006).
Elongation
The elongation value is used to assess the degree of elasticity and flexibility of the noodles produced and to determine the maximum ability of a material to elongate (Indriani, 2003). The graph of the effect of the ratio of sorghum flour and sago flour on the elongation value of dried noodles shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 shows that as the amount of sago flour increases, the elongation value of the dried noodles tends to increase due to the different proportions of white sorghum and sago flour. The average elongation value of the dried noodles varied between 15.20-16.03% when using white sorghum flour and sago flour. This showed that the starch concentration of the dough increased when more sago starch was added. More elongated noodles will be produced when amylose and amylopectin levels increase because they have a stronger attraction to each other and prevent the noodles from breaking young (Winarno, 2004). The properties of noodles with high elongation show the characteristics of noodles that do not break easily. This property is important as customers generally dislike noodles that crumble when cooked and or break when pulled during consumption (Engelen et al., 2015).
ab
ab
ab
b b
Breaking Point (N)
Jurnal Pangan dan Agroindustri Vol.11 No.3: 147 - 157, Juli 2023
16.20 16.00 15.80 15.60 15.40 15.20 15.00 14.80 14.60
80:20 75:25 70:30 65:35 60:40 55:45
Figure 4: Graph of the Average Elongation Value of Dry Noodles with Proportion of Sorghum and Sago Flour
Cooking time
The cooking time value is the time required for the noodles to form completely during cooking. The disappearance of the white dot in the centre of each strand of noodles during cooking indicates how long the food has been cooked (Basman & Yalcin, 2011). The graph of the effect of the ratio of sorghum flour and sago flour on the cooking time value of dried noodles is shown in Figure 5.
800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
80:20 75:25 70:30 65:35 60:40 55:45
Figure 5. Graph Of the Average Value of Cooking Time of Dry Noodles at the Proportion of Sorghum and Sago Flour
Figure 5 shows that the time required to cook the dried noodles due to variations in the ratio of white sorghum to sago flour tended to increase as the proportion of sago flour increased. The average cooking time of the dried noodles using a mixture of white sorghum and sago starch ranged from 575.01 to 701.75. As the water penetration potential is reduced due to the higher amount of amylopectin, this phenomenon suggests that the addition of sago starch results in a longer cooking time (Yadav & Agarwala, 2011). The higher proportion of white sorghum flour affects the fibre content, increasing in sulphate groups to maximise water penetration (Towle, 1973). A short cooking time test value would be preferable as it would speed up the water absorption process, reduce the moisture content of the noodles and prevent slight texture damage from prolonged cooking. According to (Calvin, 2016), starch granules expand and their viscosity increases as water penetrates them during the cooking process. The creation of a strong binding structure between the hydrocolloid and the starch
a
ab
ab ab ab
b
b a
e d d c
Cooking Time(S)Elongation (%)
molecules and protein components is another way in which the addition of hydrocolloids has an impact on increasing the cooking time value.
Cooking loss
The cooking loss value indicates the amount of solids that come from the noodles strands during the cooking process (Basman & Yalcin, 2011). The effect of the ratio of sorghum flour to sago flour on the cooking loss value of dried noodles is shown in Figure 6.
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
80:20 75:25 70:30 65:35 60:40 55:45
Figure 6. Graph of the average Cooking Loss Value of Dry Noodles at the Proportion of Sorghum and Sago Flour
Figure 6 shows that the cooking loss value of dried noodles due to variation in the proportion of white sorghum and sago flour tends to decrease as the proportion of sago flour increases. The cooking loss value of dried noodles made with a combination of white sorghum and sago starch varied on average from 2.21 to 11.38%. This occurred because the gelatinisation of the ungelatinised binder starch was less efficient due to the higher amount of sorghum flour. The fragile and immature starch structure was damaged by the binding of water in the standard starch gelatinisation process. Starch granules break due to the large amount of water hydrating the noodle strands. Turbidity resulted from the released starch suspended in the boiling water. The results were inversely correlated with those obtained for the elongation parameter, where the elongation value of the noodles increased with the addition of sago starch. Muhandri & Mustakim, (2013) found that increased elongation, where the bond between particles is stronger and not easily broken during cooking, was associated with lower cooking loss values. This may be because sago flour has a higher concentration of amylopectin than white sorghum flour, and amylopectin is sticky, allowing it to bind together flour and other ingredients to make noodles (Imanningsih, 2012). Proteins and other large molecules are bound by the inclusion of the carrier material carrageenan, which improves the structure of the noodles. The use of CMC also reduces the amount of cooking shrinkage in dry noodles. The use of hydrocolloids creates complex linkages between amylose and hydrocolloids (Singh et al., 2003). This results in less amylose being released from the starch granules during the leaching process, reducing the amount of soluble solids during cooking. The dissolution rate of swollen starch pyrimidine molecules is also reduced by hydrocolloids (Liu et al., 2006).
Water Absorbancy
NWater absorption is the ability of noodles to absorb water well during cooking. The resulting noodles are more tender when cooked due to increased water absorption (Choy et al., 2013). The graph of the effect of the ratio of sorghum flour to sago flour on the absorbency value of dry noodles is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7 shows that the water absorption value of dried noodles due to variations in the proportion of white sorghum flour and sago flour tended to increase with increasing proportions of sago flour. The average of the results from the research on the absorption value of dried noodles with the proportion of sorghum flour and white sorghum varied from 142.02 to
a
a a
b b b
CookingLoss (%)
Jurnal Pangan dan Agroindustri Vol.11 No.3: 147 - 157, Juli 2023 180.88%. If the hydroxyl group of starch increases, the water absorption value will increase.
This is because the high starch content of the ingredients will accelerate the process of starch gelatinisation and water absorption (Biyumna et al., 2017). The protein and fibre composition of sorghum flour also affects its ability to bind water (Trisnawati & Nisa, 2015). The addition of CMC and carrageenan further impacts the ease of water binding as their molecular chains include sulphate groups. Also, egg white flour can improve how well dry noodles absorb water (Lehninger, 1994).
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
80:20 75:25 70:30 65:35 60:40 55:45
Figure 7. Average Value of Water Absorbency of Dry Noodles at Proportion of Sorghum and Sago Flour
2. Chemical Characteristics Of Dry Noodles
Determining the best treatment for making dried noodles can be done using the Multiplied Attribute approach (Zeleny, 1998). The variables used in determining the best treatment are seen from the physical test data of dried noodles, namely the lightness value (L*), breaking point, high elongation, lowest cooking time, lowest cooking loss and highest water absorption.
The parameters mentioned were considered to be of equal importance. The best results for making dried noodles were achieved when sorghum and sago starch were combined at a ratio of 60%:40%. The characteristics of the best-treated dried noodles are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that the chemical characteristics of dried sorghum noodles have a moisture content of 11.90%. Based on SNI No. 01-2974-1996, the quality requirement for dried noodles is about 10%. Compared with the results of the study, the value of moisture content of dried noodles with the proportion of sorghum and sago flour did not meet the requirements of SNI No. 01-2974-1996; this is because the processing process, raw materials and different types of drying affect it. In a study conducted by Litaay et al. (2022), it was found that the moisture content of commercial sago noodles still had a moisture content value of 12.42%, so the moisture content of dried sorghum noodles of the research results was still lower than the moisture content of commercial sago noodles. Moisture content is an important parameter because it determines the texture and shelf life of the product. Moisture content determines resistance to chemical and biological damage. Moisture content determines the shelf life of food products in relation to the activity of microorganisms during storage. According to Purwoko (2009), products with relatively low moisture content are more stable in long-term storage than those with high moisture content. The fibre, protein and starch content of the food will affect the moisture content. Starch granules can absorb water due to the many hydroxyl groups in starch, so the higher the starch content in a material, the higher the moisture content. Starch is a hydrophilic compound.
d c b a a
e
Water Absorbency (%)
Table 1. Chemical Characteristics of the Best Dry Noodles
Parameter Strength (%) SNI (%)
Moisture content 11.90±0.29 10
Ash content 1.15±0.09 3
Fat content 0.24±0.01 -
Protein content 5.98± 0.73 8
Carbohydrate content 80.79±1.48 -
The best-dried sorghum noodles had an ash concentration of about 1.15%. According to SNI No. 01-2974-1996, the ash content of dried noodles varies between 3% and 5%. The moisture content value of dried sorghum noodles still meets the SNI No. 01-2974-1996 standard compared to the research results. When food is burned and incinerated at a temperature of 500-8000 °C, its ash content remains. The amount of minerals in a substance and its ash content are closely related. According to Balittra (2015), the type of material and the method of ashing determine the amount and arrangement of ash or minerals in the material.
The best-dried noodles had protein contents ranging from 5.98% to 11% and 8%, respectively, while dried noodles without flour-based components must have a minimum protein content of 4%. This figure is based on the SNI for dried noodles (SNI No. 01-2974- 1996). The value of protein content in dry noodles made from non-wheat flour and using a mixture of sorghum and palm sago flour does not meet SNI No. 01-2974-1996 when compared to the results of the research. The protein content of commercial sago noodles was 0.25% in a previous study by Litaay et al. (2022), which did not exceed the SNI standard. The composition of the component materials used to make the product and the way it is made significantly affect the protein content of an ingredient or product (Nursalma et al., 2021).
According to the SNI for dry noodles (SNI No. 01-2974-1996), dry noodles have the lowest fat content, which is around 0.24%. In addition to the main raw materials, other additives are also responsible for the fat content of a product (Virdi & Singh, 2020). Dry noodles may contain fat due to additives. Foods with a relatively high-fat content are often not preferred because fat affects how long they can be stored. This is to prevent odours and undesirable substances from appearing as a result of the food going rancid due to its fat content.
Compared to other ingredients, the dried noodles with the best treatment had the highest amount of carbohydrates, about 80.79%. The carbohydrate content of dried noodles has not been standardised following the SNI for dried noodles (SNI No. 01-2974-1996). Carbohydrate calculated using the by-difference method is influenced by other nutritional components present in the ingredients, namely fat, water, protein and ash. The higher the other nutritional components, the lower the measured carbohydrate content, and conversely the lower the other nutritional components, the higher the measured carbohydrate content (Fatkurahman et al., 2012).
CONCLUSION
Sorghum flour can be used as one of the raw materials in the production of gluten-free dried noodles. Different proportions of sorghum and sago flour had different effects on the physical and chemical properties of the dried noodles. The best dry noodle treatment was obtained at the ratio of sorghum and sago flour of 60%: 40% is the best treatment based on the physical characteristics of noodles using the Zeleny method. The physical characteristics of the best treated dry noodles have a lightness of 63.01%, tensile strength of 5.97 N, fracture strength of 1.38 N/mm2, elongation of 16.03%, cooking time of 655.21%, cooking loss of 2.21%
and water absorption value of 179.83%. The results of the chemical analysis of the best-dried noodles show a moisture content of 11.90%, an ash content of 1.15%, a fat content of 0.24%, a protein content of 5.98% and a carbohydrate content of 80.79%.
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