Development and Initial Validation of the Active School Transport Instrument in the Developing Country Context to Measure Parental Intentions
Mukhlis Nahriri Bastama,c,*, Muhamad Razuhanafi Mat Yazidb, Muhamad Nazri Borhanb
aResearch Centre, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, 43600, Malaysia
bSmart and Sustainable Township Research Centre, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, 43600, Malaysia
c Department of Civil Engineering, Universitas Indo Global Mandiri, Palembang, 30129, Sumatera Selatan, Indonesia
Abstract
Background: An active school transport (AST) instrument to measure parental intentions in a developing country context with 11 latent constructs and 108 measuring items has been created as part of the integration framework: psychological and social cognitive constructs, perceived environmental, and habit constructs. The purpose of the current study is to develop and carry out initial validation of construct items for measuring parental intentions to promote AST in a developing country's context.
Method: Three experts carried out a content validity index (CVI) by giving agreement to calculate the Item-CVI (I-CVI) and the Scale-level-CVI (S-CVI). A pilot study was conducted to test the validity and reliability of the construct items in Palembang, Indonesia, with 34 parents of school-aged children returning the instruments to be analyzed using SPSS Version 23.
Results: It was discovered that 93 items were legitimate since their r values were more extensive than 0.3, and it was determined that 11 constructs were reliable because the measuring items had a Cronbach's alpha coefficient range of 0.8 – 0.9 (very good) and > 0.9. (excellent).
Conclusion: An instrument has met the requirements of good validity and reliability and can contribute as a novel instrument to measure parental intentions towards AST, especially in developing countries in Asia, particularly Indonesia.
Keywords: instrument development, school travel, mode choice, active transport, reliability, validity, theory of planned behaviour, perceived environment, social cognitive, habit, active commuting, children, parents
1. Introduction
Physical activity (PA) among children is on the decline worldwide, which poses a substantial risk to their health. As a result, interventions are required to raise the likelihood that children will reach the World Health Organization's recommendation of engaging in 60 minutes of PA per day (Buliung et al., 2011; Guthold et al., 2020; Larouche et al., 2018; Villa-González et al., 2018; Witten et al., 2013). The overall prevalence of insufficient physical activity in some high-income Western countries such as the United States is 72.0%, Canada is 76.3%, the UK is 79.9%, Spain is 76.6%, Australia is 89%, and New Zealand is 88.7% also several countries in the Southeast Asian region such as Indonesia 86.4% and neighbours Singapore 76.3% and Malaysia 86.2% (Guthold et al., 2020). Indonesia, with a population of 40% of the total population in Southeast Asia or 279.1 million people, is the country with the most population in the region (World Population Review, 2022). This statistic will undoubtedly have consequences on children's well-being. Physical activity can be defined as any movement of the body that is produced by the skeletal muscles and results in the expenditure of energy (World Health Organization, 2022). The term "physical activity" refers to all types of movement a person engages in, whether to move themselves to and from an activity, for recreation or as part of their activity (World Health Organization, 2022). Children who participate in active school transportation (AST), often known as walking and cycling to school, have the opportunity to increase their physical activity levels (Larouche et al., 2014; Van Sluijs et al., 2009). Many benefits of AST will be obtained by children not only reducing the risk of being overweight or obese (Adom et al., 2019; Bere et al., 2011; Mendoza et
al., 2014; Ramírez-Vélez et al., 2017). Nevertheless, it also positively influences children's mental and psychological health (Fusco et al., 2012; Kleszczewska et al., 2020; Stark et al., 2019). To promote AST as an increase in PA levels, researchers studied the behaviour of children and their parents towards AST, especially in developed countries such as the United States, Canada, UK, Spain, Australia, and New Zealand, which are otherwise inadequate in developing countries in Asia (Bastam et al., 2022). As a significant key in AST decision-making in children, parental involvement needs to be a primary focus in investigating to promote of AST (Aranda-Balboa et al., 2020; Forsberg et al., 2020).
Behaviour towards AST is influenced by various complex factors related to each other at the individual, social, and environmental levels (Ikeda et al., 2019; Mandic et al., 2017). Multiple factors mentioned in the ecological model, including psychological and environmental factors, affect health behaviour such as AST (Bauman et al., 2012; Sallis et al., 2016). However, little research has used established psychological theories to understand the relationships between psychological factors (Jing et al., 2018).
The Theory of Planned Behavior is a socio-psychological model commonly used to explain behavioural motivation and successfully explains the mechanism of AST (Abrahamse et al., 2009; Jing et al., 2018;
Stark et al., 2018; Zaragoza et al., 2020). TPB argues that intention is the main predictor that shapes individual behaviour and is a mediator of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (PBC) (Ajzen, 1991). Further evidence from recent research reveals that attitudes, social support, parental perceptions, and perceived parental barriers toward AST influence their children's transportation mode to school (Aranda-Balboa et al., 2020; Mah et al., 2017; Mandic et al., 2020;
Rothman et al., 2015; Woldeamanuel, 2016). Barriers that parents consider are related to safety, distance to school, and built environment (Aranda-Balboa et al., 2020). Self-determination theory (R. Ryan &
Deci, 2000) assumes that accomplishing basic psychological needs (BPNs) such as autonomy (the need to take responsibility for one's actions), competence (the desire to achieve desired outcomes) and relatedness (the desire for a sense of connection with others) directly leads to an increase in positive behavioural outcomes such as interest, attitude, and intention. The SDT has been utilized extensively as a research framework concerning PA, whereas the utilization of BPNs in connection with AST is currently low (Zaragoza et al., 2020). Several previous studies have integrated TPB and BPNs to explain the mechanism of AST (Kinnafick et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2014). Environmentally nuanced factors directly or indirectly affect AST behaviour (Arvidsson et al., 2012; Scheiner et al., 2019; Zaragoza et al., 2020). In addition, the habit has a significant effect on the behaviour of AST (Jing et al., 2018) A research framework that integrates psychological and social cognitive constructs (i.e., TPB, BPN) and perceived environmental factors to explain AST was first proposed in New Zealand (Ikeda et al., 2019).
The author modifies the framework by combining the habit construct as a predictor and applying it to the context of developing countries in Asia, especially Indonesia. The current study aims to create further, refine, adjust, and initial items validate constructs to measure parental intentions to promote AST in developing countries.
2. Material and Methodology 2.1. Context
The study was conducted in Palembang, a metropolis in a developing country located to the south of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The city has a population of 1.6 million people with an area of 400.61 km2 with a population density of 4166 inhabitants/km2 (Badan Pusat Statistik Kota Palembang, 2022).
The city of Palembang is divided into two parts, namely the Seberang Ilir and Seberang Ulu areas. The Musi River is the longest river on the island of Sumatra and is among the ten longest rivers in Indonesia.
Nine hundred sixty-two schools consisting of 488 elementary schools, 253 junior high schools, and 221 high schools spread across 18 sub-districts in Palembang (Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 2022). Three hundred sixteen thousand eight hundred sixty-five students with details of 155,828 elementary school level students, 76,870 junior high school level students, and 84,167 high school level students who travel to school every day (Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 2021). The climate in the study area is a tropical climate consisting of dry and rainy seasons (Badan Meteorologi
Klimatologi dan Geofisika, 2022). The dry season begins in April and ends in August, when the study is conducted. The region has no specific intervention to promote AST among school children.
2.2. Procedures and Measures
The design of the instrument to measure parental intention variables in this study used four general procedures, namely: 1) conceptualization, 2) development, 3) expert review, and 4) pilot study (Figure 2). The procedure's framework results from modifications to instrument development and validation procedures carried out by researchers in various fields (Almutairi & Dahinten, 2017; Bass et al., 2016;
Davis, 1996; Schmiedel et al., 2014).
Figure 2. Instrument development and validation procedure
The first stage of the instrument development and validation procedure used in this study, conceptualization, consists of two fundamental steps before building a research instrument. The step is to formulate a framework or model, followed by identifying and defining the construct of the proposed framework or model. In the second stage, the initial draft instrument is constructed by selecting, compiling, and adapting the items used as indicators in measuring the construct and the grading system of these items. In the third stage, the items that have been arranged in the initial draft of the instrument are reviewed by experts. The review process includes language and culture adjustments according to geographical contexts and the validity of the content of these items. The result of this stage is the acceptance, repair, or elimination of items for the implementation of the next stage. In the fourth stage, the author conducts a field test of the initial draft of the instrument extracted from the previous stage to assess the validity and absolute reliability of the measuring instrument.
2.2.1. Conceptualization
The conceptualization stage is the framework formulation that will be proposed to measure parental intentions toward the AST, constructs identification, and definition. The authors conducted a systematic literature analysis to summarize key findings from past research to establish which constructs will be employed. The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) has been successfully applied in previous efforts to understand AST behaviour from a parental approach (Pang et al., 2018; Schuster et al., 2015, 2016). It has been shown that habit has a significant and positive effect on all of the other latent variables of TPB in prior studies (Bamberg et al., 2003; Jing et al., 2018). Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985;
R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2017) is a well-known paradigm for analyzing the societal and individual factors that influence physical activity involvement in children and adolescents (B. Owen et al., 2014).
1
Conceptualization
2
Development
3
Expert Review
4
Pilot Study
Framework/
model formulation
Construct identification and define
Items selection, creation, and adaptation
Scoring system creation
The initial draft of the instrument
Cultural/ context adjustment
Content validity review
Refinement of items
Field test by small sample for item validity and construct reliability
Items reduction and refinement
The final draft of the instrument
Moreover, the number of studies in the AST-specific setting has increased in recent years (Burgueño et al., 2019; White et al., 2018). It has been established that perceived environmental barriers and perceived neighbourhood environments are related to PA in developed countries, but little is known about them in emerging countries of Asia (Bauman et al., 2012; Chiang et al., 2019; Hsueh et al., 2018;
Liou et al., 2011; Uddin et al., 2018). TPB is extended to include the constructs of habit, perceived environment, and child's psychological needs as parental barriers to encouraging AST.
2.2.2. Development
The items used to measure the constructions are selected, created, and modified in the development stage. A scoring system was utilized to quantify participant responses to the questions. Furthermore, generate an initial draft of the instrument to initiate the subsequent stage.
Theory of Planned Behaviour Subscale
A questionnaire was constructed to test the TPB constructs (i.e., attitude, subject norm, description norm, perceived behavioural control, and intention) based on the references of (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2011) and prior research on AST in children (Banyong et al., 2020; Forsberg et al., 2021; Jing et al., 2018;
Murtagh et al., 2012; Zaragoza et al., 2020). Attitude is measured by nine items (i.e. "If my child cycles/walks to school regularly, my child's independence will grow well."). Subjective norm (SN) is measured by six items (i.e. "My best friends/ My family/ My co-workers/ My neighbours/ My Spouse/
My parents support me letting my child bike/walk to school."). Description norm (DN) measured by six items (i.e. "My best friends/ My family/ My co-workers/ My neighbours/ My Spouse/ My parents will let their child bike/walk to school."). Nine items measure perceived behavioural control (PBC) (i.e.
"I am confident that I can let my child bike/walk to school every day."). The intention is measured by six items (i.e. "I intend to let my child bike/walk to school every day in the upcoming school year."). A five-point Likert scale was used to gauge participant agreement (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3
= neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree).
Self Determination Theory Subscale
Prior studies have contributed to the involvement of certain items in these constructs (Burgueño et al., 2020; Zaragoza et al., 2020). The self-determination theory in the activity scale, which consists of twenty items, was utilized to perform the measuring of autonomy (six items: e.g. “I feel that I have used the school travel mode of my choice.”), competence (seven items: e.g. “I am proficient in cycling/walking to school.”), Furthermore, relatedness (seven items: e.g. “I feel very comfortable when I go to school with my friends.”). A Likert scale with five points was utilized for each participant to report their level of agreement.
Perceived Environmental Barriers Subscale
The Barriers to Active Transport to Educational Centres (BATACE) scale was developed to examine people's perceptions of the environmental barriers that hinder the success of AST (Molina-García et al., 2016), and recent research (Zaragoza et al., 2020). Perceived environmental barriers were measured by eighteen items (i.e. "Sidewalks or bike lanes are not available on the road along between the house- schools."). Each participant used a Likert scale with five points to report the degree to which they agreed with the statement.
Perceived Neighbourhood Environment Subscale
A participant's neighbourhood was defined as the region surrounding his or her residence that could be walked in 10–15 minutes, or roughly 1.5 kilometres (García-Cervantes et al., 2014; Spittaels et al., 2010). The perceived neighbourhood environment was evaluated using a Spanish adaptation of the ALPHA environmental questionnaire (García-Cervantes et al., 2014; Spittaels et al., 2010), and a recent
study (Zaragoza et al., 2020). Twenty-two items were used to measure this construct (i.e. "Due to the high volume of traffic in the neighbourhood around where I live, walking is not recommended."). A Likert scale with five points was given to each participant, and they were instructed to report the degree to which they agreed with the statement being made.
Habit Subscale
Habit as a determinant of intention and behaviour in TPB is studied since the constructs meet Ajzen's criteria for utilizing determinants in other behavioural domains (Ajzen, 2011; Gardner, 2009; Rivis &
Sheeran, 2003). Habit also has a significant positive effect on the latent construct in the TPB of children's school travel behaviour (Jing et al., 2018). This construct was measured by twelve items adapted from Verplanken and Orbell's Self-Report Habit Index (i.e. "Cycling/walking on travel is something I frequently do.”) (Verplanken & Orbell, 2003). A Likert scale with five scales is also employed.
2.2.3. Expert Review
A new investigation must be strictly confirmed to warrant that an instrument is valid (Collins, 2003;
Rodrigues et al., 2017; Saw & Ng, 2001). Quantitative methods are used to evaluate how well items relate to or reflect a particular domain, and content validity is one of the measures that can be obtained from these evaluations (Carmines & Zeller, 1979; Rodrigues et al., 2017; Saw & Ng, 2001). There are many methods to assess content validity. The content validity index (CVI), assessed by experts, is used in this study. CVI is the strategy for content validity in instrument construction that has received the most significant attention from researchers, and it may be computed with the use of the Item-CVI (I- CVI) and the Scale-level-CVI (S-CVI) (Rodrigues et al., 2017; Zamanzadeh et al., 2015). The I-CVI is calculated by taking the number of experts rated each item as "very relevant" and dividing that number by the total number of experts. The values range from 0 to 1, and if the I-CVI for an item is more significant than 0.79, then it is relevant; if it is between 0.70 and 0.79, then it requires changes; and if it is less than 0.70, then it is removed (Rodrigues et al., 2017; Zamanzadeh et al., 2015). Similarly, the S-CVI is computed using the number of items in an instrument-rated "very relevant" (Rodrigues et al., 2017; Zamanzadeh et al., 2015). A conservative method, the Average CVI (S-CVI/Ave), was used to calculate the S-CVI in this study (Rodrigues et al., 2017; Zamanzadeh et al., 2015). By dividing the total number of items by the sum of their I-CVIs, S-CVI/Ave is determined to study (Rodrigues et al., 2017; Zamanzadeh et al., 2015). S-CVI/Ave demonstrates excellent content validity values greater than or equal to 0.9 (Shi et al., 2012). Experts also make cultural or contextual adjustments to items adapted from previous studies. The experts who conducted the review process of the instrument items in this study were three experts. The first expert is a professional statistician and consumer behaviour expert.
The second expert is a professional psychologist and lecturer. The third expert is a professional media communication expert. These experts have more than ten years of experience in their field.
2.2.4. Pilot Study
A pilot study is an initial stage in the overall study protocol. A pilot study is more typical of a small- scale than the main study, and its primary purpose is to assist in the planning and adjustment of the full- scale study (Arnold et al., 2009; In, 2017; Thabane et al., 2010). The preliminary trial, practice run, feasibility study, and small-scale study are commonly used to describe pilot study (Flight & Julious, 2016; In, 2017). The pilot study's purpose is to gather the information that can be used to improve the project or determine its feasibility (Polit-O’Hara et al., 1999; Polit et al., 2001; Smith & Harrison, 2009).
The pilot study is also a statistical test confirming the instrument's validity and reliability for use in full- scale studies. Because testing the hypothesis is not the primary goal of a pilot study, the sample size is sometimes not estimated in these investigations (In, 2017). Some studies propose more than 12 samples for each group, while others recommend over 30 samples for each group (Browne, 1995; In, 2017;
Julious, 2005). It is necessary to select a suitable sample size not to provide adequate power for
hypothesis testing but to understand the practicability of participant recruiting or study design (In, 2017). The pilot study was carried out from April 2022 to May 2022. A total of 50 instruments were distributed to participants, and then 34 instruments were received for analysis using SPSS Version 23.
In order to establish the correct Pearson correlation coefficient (r table value), the degree of freedom (df) must be determined. The degree of freedom (df) was then set to 32, given that there were 34 study participants (degree of freedom = sample size − 2). 0.307 is the r table value for 32 degrees of freedom with a significance level of 0.05. Meanwhile, the standard of reliability follows the interpretation of Cronbach's alpha coefficient range (<0.6 (weak); 0.6 - 0.7 (moderate); 0.7 - 0.8 (good); 0.8 – 0.9 (very good); > 0.9 (excellent)) (Hair et al., 2003).
3. Results and Discussion Content Validity Index (CVI)
A summary of the expert review process is presented in Table 1. The first column shows the constructs involved in the study. The second column is the items used to measure each construct. There are 11 latent constructs with 108 items spread out, varying each construct. The third and the fourth columns indicate the CVI given by the expert and the I-CVI of each item. Three experts give a valuation of the relevance of the items. Three experts are required for content validation (Lynn, 1986). The last column, the fifth column, interprets each I-CVI value of each item. Of 108 items assessed by experts, 96 items were rated appropriate, 11 items needed revision, and eliminated 1 item based on the reference I-CVI value range (Rodrigues et al., 2017; Zamanzadeh et al., 2015). Items that require revision relate to the adjustment of local culture and language. The eleven items that need improvement are five items of the attitude construct, four items of the perceived environmental barriers construct, and two items of the perceived neighbourhood environment construct. While the eliminated item, included in the habit construct, is the ambiguous item in terms of language, experts cannot be used in the context of this study. After each item is revised and rejected according to the advice of experts, the total number of items to be tested for validity and reliability is 107. S-CVI calculated at the end of the table shows that the number 0.93 meet the established criteria, which means the validity of the content is excellent (Shi et al., 2012).
Table 1. Calculation of I-CVI and S-CVI/Ave for items of AST
Constructs Items Expert - CVI I-CVI Interpretation
1 2 3
ATT ATT1 Child's independence 1.00 0.86 1.00 0.95 Appropriate
ATT2 Child's concentration 1.00 0.84 1.00 0.95 Appropriate
ATT3 Child's health 1.00 0.98 1.00 0.99 Appropriate
ATT4 Feel excited and happy 0.80 0.88 0.70 0.79 Need Revision
ATT5 Household expenditure 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate
ATT6 Safety and security will be vulnerable 0.70 0.94 0.70 0.78 Need Revision ATT7 School trips will take too extended 0.70 0.88 0.80 0.79 Need Revision ATT8 School trips will be boring and unpleasant 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.77 Need Revision ATT9 Feel tired and depressed 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.77 Need Revision
SN SN1 Friends 1.00 0.90 0.94 0.95 Appropriate
SN2 Family 1.00 0.90 0.94 0.95 Appropriate
SN3 Coworkers 1.00 0.90 1.00 0.97 Appropriate
SN4 Neighbours 1.00 0.90 0.94 0.95 Appropriate
SN5 Couple 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
SN6 Parents 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
DN DN1 Friends 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate
DN2 Family 1.00 0.90 0.94 0.95 Appropriate
DN3 Coworkers 1.00 0.80 1.00 0.93 Appropriate
DN4 Neighbours 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate
DN5 Couple 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
DN6 Parents 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
PBC PBC1 I live in a surrounding that allows 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate PBC2 I am confident that I can 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate
PBC3 Giving trust to my child 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate PBC4 The child who knows navigation 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate PBC5 Could walk/bike to school 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate PBC6 Could walk/bike for other activities 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate PBC7 It is entirely up to me 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate PBC8 It is difficult for my child to 1.00 0.80 0.88 0.89 Appropriate PBC9 My child has enough time 1.00 0.88 1.00 0.96 Appropriate PEB PEB1 Availability of Sidewalks or cycle sections 1.00 0.88 1.00 0.96 Appropriate PEB2 The road atmosphere is not interesting 0.96 0.96 0.88 0.93 Appropriate
PEB3 No lighting at night 0.70 0.96 0.70 0.79 Need Revision
PEB4 Dangerous crossroads along home-school 0.95 0.90 0.94 0.93 Appropriate PEB5 Influence of local weather 1.00 0.80 0.82 0.87 Appropriate PEB6 Similarities with other children 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate PEB7 Teenagers' perception of cycling/walking 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate
PEB8 Carrying heavy loads 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.77 Need Revision
PEB9 The convenience of self-driving and finding a rides 0.98 0.90 0.82 0.90 Appropriate PEB10 Troublesome preparation 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate
PEB11 Safe bicycle parking 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate
PEB12 Presence of wild animals 0.70 0.80 0.70 0.73 Need Revision PEB13 Distance between home and school 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate PEB14 Areas with a high crime rate 1.00 0.90 1.00 0.97 Appropriate
PEB15 Cycling/walking fun 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
PEB16 The road contour along the home-school 1.00 0.80 0.88 0.89 Appropriate
PEB17 Traffic situation 1.00 0.80 0.88 0.89 Appropriate
PEB18 Pedestrian abuse of the bicycle lane function 0.70 0.80 0.70 0.73 Need Revision PNE PNE1 Availability of sidewalks 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
PNE2 Availability of pedestrian paths 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate PNE3 Availability of cycle-only lanes 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate PNE4 Availability of separated cycle routes 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate PNE5 Availability of playgrounds or esplanades 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
PNE6 Sidewalks condition 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
PNE7 Cycle lanes condition 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
PNE8 Playgrounds or esplanades condition 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
PNE9 Unsafe bicycle parking 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate
PNE10 Safe points to cross busy streets 0.70 0.80 0.70 0.73 Need Revision PNE11 Traffic volume and walking 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.96 Appropriate PNE12 Traffic volume and cycling 0.95 0.96 0.94 0.95 Appropriate PNE13 Crime rate and security during the day 0.98 0.96 0.88 0.94 Appropriate PNE14 Crime rate and security at night 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.95 Appropriate
PNE15 Cycling experience 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate
PNE16 Graffiti and garbage litter my neighbourhood street 0.70 0.96 0.70 0.79 Need Revision PNE17 Environments with tree-lined roads 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate PNE18 Abandoned buildings in the neighbourhood 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.95 Appropriate PNE19 The existence of a shortcut 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate PNE20 The fastest mode of cycling during the day 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate PNE21 The existence of a crossroads 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate PNE22 Ease of cycling/walking and preferred route 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
HBT HBT1 I do frequently 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate
HBT2 I do automatically 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate
HBT3 I do it without having to remember consciously 1.00 0.80 0.88 0.89 Appropriate HBT4 That makes me feel weird if I do not do it 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate HBT5 I do it without thinking 1.00 0.80 0.82 0.87 Appropriate HBT6 That would require effort not to do it 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate HBT7 (Daily, weekly, monthly) routine 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate HBT8 I start doing it before I realize I am doing it 1.00 0.80 0.82 0.87 Appropriate HBT9 I would find it hard not to do 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate HBT10 I do not need to think about doing 1.00 0.80 0.88 0.89 Appropriate
HBT11 That is typical “me” 0.50 0.78 0.60 0.63 Eliminated
HBT12 I have been doing this for a long time 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate
INT INT1 I want to let my child 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate
INT2 I intend to let my child 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate
INT3 I will let my child 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate
INT4 I am willing to let my child 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate INT5 I plan to let my child 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate INT6 It is prospective that I will let my child 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate
ATN ATN1 I feel that I use 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate
ATN2 I feel that I have the freedom 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate
ATN3 I feel that my school commute mode is perfectly 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate ATN4 I feel that my school commute mode parallel 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate ATN5 I feel that my school commute mode is what 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate ATN6 I feel that I can choose 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate COM COM1 I am capable to cycle/walk 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate COM2 I am competent to cycle/walk 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate COM3 I am profecient to cycle/walk 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate COM4 I am confident in my ability 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate COM5 I am confident in my proficiency 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate COM6 I am confident in my expertise 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate COM7 I am confident in my competency 1.00 0.88 0.88 0.92 Appropriate
RLT RLT1 I feel tuned in when 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate
RLT2 I feel I can easily talk when 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.95 Appropriate RLT3 I feel very comfortable when 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate RLT4 I feel incredibly relaxed when 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.95 Appropriate RLT5 I feel I kindly interplay with 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate RLT6 I feel comfortable talking to 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate RLT7 I feel very relaxed with 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.95 Appropriate
I - CVI 100.02
S-CVI/Ave 0.93
ATT = Attitude; SN = Subjective Norm; DN = Description Norm; PBC = Perceived Behavioural Control; PEB = Perceived Environmental Barriers; PNE = Perceived Neighbourhood Environment; HBT = Habit; INT = Intention; ATN = Autonomy;
COM = Competence; RLT = Relatedness
Validity and Reliability
The sociodemographic characteristics of this study's participants are presented in Table 2. The participants that returned the self-reported instruments comprised 34 parents with school-aged children aged 6 to 18. Participants consisted of men (55.9%) age range 26 – 41 or the millennial generation group (58.8%) and dominated by higher education (91.2%). Children as school travellers consist of boys (64.7%) with an age range of 6-12 years (70.6%) or at the level of elementary school students.
The characteristics of school tips are in the form of distance to school, which is evenly distributed with a distance of more than 3 km (35.3%), these children are accompanied to school (82.4%), and the use of private vehicles (motorbikes/cars) (88.2%).
Table 2. Sociodemographic characteristics of participants (n = 34)
%
Gender of parent
Male 55.9
Female 44.1
Age of parent
26 - 41 Millenial 58.8
42 - 56 Gen X 41.2
Education of parent
Middle school education 8.8
Higher education 91.2
Gender of child
Boy 64.7
Girl 35.3
Age of child
6 - 12 70.6
13 - 15 14.7
16 - 18 14.7
Distance to school
0 - 500 m 11.8
>500 - 1 km 11.8
>1 - 2 km 23.5
>2 - 3 km 17.6
>3 km 35.3
School Mobility
Escorted 82.4
Independent Mobility 17.6
School Mode of Transport
Public Transport 2.9
Private Vehicle 88.2
Bicycle 2.9
Walk 6.0
Table 3. Overview of items, corrected item-total correlation, Cronbach's alpha, Cronbach's alpha based on standardized items, number of items
Constructs Items Item
Correlation (r)
Cronbach's Alpha
()
Cronbach's Alpha Standardized
()
No.
Items
ATT Child's independence 0.860 0.878 0.875 7
Child's concentration 0.748
Child's health 0.853
Feel happy 0.646
Household expenditure 0.852
Security will be vulnerable 0.329
Trips time will take too extended 0.380
SN Friends 0.930 0.972 0.974 6
Family 0.938
Coworkers 0.924
Neighbours 0.912
Couple 0.882
Parents 0.887
DN Friends 0.970 0.976 0.977 6
Family 0.920
Coworkers 0.936
Neighbours 0.927
Couple 0.892
Parents 0.897
PBC I live in a surrounding that allows 0.831 0.942 0.942 8
I am confident that I can 0.918
Giving trust to my child 0.895
The child who knows navigation 0.844
Could walk/bike to school 0.785
Could walk/bike for other activities 0.821
It is entirely up to me 0.532
My child has enough time 0.730
PEB Availability of Sidewalks or cycle sections 0.769 0.945 0.944 17 The road atmosphere is not interesting 0.649
Road signs along home-school 0.739
Dangerous crossroads along home-school 0.825
Influence of local weather 0.733
Similarities with other children 0.753 Teenagers' perception of cycling/walking 0.564
Carrying a heavy school bag 0.699
The convenience of self-driving and finding a rides
0.646
Troublesome preparation 0.619
Safe bicycle parking 0.628
Presence of stray dogs 0.527
Distance between home and school 0.748
Areas with a high crime rate 0.812
The road contour along the home-school 0.351
Traffic situation 0.764
Misuse of the sidewalk function 0.854
PNE Availability of crossings 0.609 0.893 0.892 12
Traffic volume and walking 0.645
Traffic volume and cycling 0.625
Crime rate and security during the day 0.661 Crime rate and security at night 0.814
Cycling experience 0.357
Garbage litter my neighbourhood street 0.637 Abandoned buildings in the neighbourhood 0.662
The existence of a shortcut 0.643
The fastest mode of cycling during the day 0.389 The existence of a crossroads 0.692 Ease of cycling/walking and preferred route 0.496
HBT I do frequently 0.827 0.945 0.944 11
I do automatically 0.807
I do it without having to remember consciously 0.789 That makes me feel weird if I do not do it 0.706
I do it without thinking 0.684
That would require effort not to do it 0.501 (Daily, weekly, monthly) routine 0.812 I start doing it before I realize I am doing it 0.827 I would find it hard not to do 0.809 I do not need to think about doing 0.744 I have been doing this for a long time 0.797
INT I want to let my child 0.901 0.978 0.978 6
I intend to let my child 0.927
I will let my child 0.945
I am willing to let my child 0.923
I plan to let my child 0.921
It is prospective that I will let my child 0.947
ATN I feel that I use 0.737 0.920 0.927 6
I feel that I have the freedom 0.716 I feel that my school commute mode is perfectly 0.820 I feel that my school commute mode parallel 0.768 I feel that my school commute mode is what 0.883
I feel that I can choose 0.787
COM I am capable to cycle/walk 0.874 0.980 0.981 7
I am competent to cycle/walk 0.931 I am profecient to cycle/walk 0.911 I am confident in my ability 0.960 I am confident in my proficiency 0.970 I am confident in my expertise 0.925 I am confident in my competency 0.928
RLT I feel tuned in when 0.794 0.948 0.949 7
I feel I can easily talk when 0.839 I feel very comfortable when 0.805 I feel incredibly relaxed when 0.828 I feel I kindly interplay with 0.839 I feel comfortable talking to 0.834
I feel very relaxed with 0.839
Table 3 shows the final results of the calculation of the validity and reliability of each item from the constructs that have been compiled previously. The items resulting from expert reviews continue clustered by type of constructs. Attitude construct (ATT) with nine items primarily yielded item ATT9 r = 0.276 < 0.3 (r-table) items ATT8 r = 0.248 < 0.3 (r-table) this means that these two construct- forming items are not yet valid, so they need to be eliminated from their construct. Seven items on ATT have met the validity requirements (> 0.3), and the value of Cronbach's Alpha = 0.875 (very good) indicates that ATT with those items is already reliable. Subjective norm (SN) and description norm (DN) at the beginning have met the item validity requirements (> 0.3), with each construct consisting of six items. The values of Cronbach's Alpha, both SN = 0.974 and DN = 0.977, are excellent and report that the SN and DN with their items have been reliable. After the PBC8 item r = 0.212 < 0.3 (r-table) is eliminated, the Perceived behavioural construct (PBC) has the remaining eight items that have met the validity requirement (> 0.3) with a value of Cronbach's Alpha = 0.942 (excellent) which indicates the PBC and its items are reliable. Perceived environmental barriers (PEB), with eighteen measuring items, eliminate PEB15 r = 0.278 < 0.3 (r-table) so that the items meet the validity requirement (> 0.3) and
reliability parameters that is Cronbach's Alpha = 0.944 (excellent). Still with constructs relating to the environment, the perceived neighborhood environment (PNE) has eliminated its ten items, PNE1 r = 0.200, PNE2 r = 0.189, PNE3 r = 0.214, PNE4 r = 0.223, PNE6 r = 0.245, PNE7 r = 0.188, PNE8 r = 0.264, PNE9 r = 0.237 > 0.3 (r-table), and PNE5 relating to PNE8, and PNE17, to obtain validity values that meet the requirements (> 0.3). PNE, with twelve items remaining, has qualified reliability with the value of Cronbach's Alpha = 0.892 (very good). Habit (HBT) with 11 items, intention (INT) with six items, autonomy (ATN) with six items, competence (COM), and relatedness (TLT) constructs with seven items each have met the validity requirements (> 0.3) without having to eliminate. These last five constructs have also gained the value of excellent reliability.
4. Conclusion
TPB has been a successful theory for understanding parental intentions on AST behaviour in developed countries. The extension of this theory enhances habit, perceived environmental barriers, perceived neighbourhood environment, and self-determination theory as an addition to aspects of children's assessment in parental decisions. These proposed constructs are a unified instrument for understanding AST in developing countries, especially Indonesia. In this study, the author proposed 11 constructs and 108 measurement items. Experts panel have evaluated the items as constructs, resulting in the I-CVI >
0.79 and S-CVI/Ave > 0.9, which can be considered measurement instruments with elimination and adjustment procedures. In this process, only one item was eliminated and eleven items required revision.
Validity and reliability tests are conducted on constructs and items that have passed the preceding procedure. In conclusion, 93 items were determined to be valid based on their r values being more significant than 0.3, and the reliability of 11 constructs was determined based on the measurement items having a Cronbach's alpha coefficient range of 0.8 – 0.9 (very good) and > 0.9. (excellent). In conjunction with these findings, this study can contribute to the development of a validated instrument for measuring the psychological factors parents consider when deciding whether to allow their children to walk or cycle to school, particularly in developing countries in Asia.
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