Paramita: Historical Studies Journal, 32(2), 2022, pp. 202-211 P-ISSN: 0854-0039, E-ISSN: 2407-5825
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/paramita.v32i2.37833
Abstract: Southeast Asia played an important role in global trade networks from before to the 15th century AD. is article aims to analyze the changes in maritime networks in the classical period of Southeast Asia and their influence on the development of ports and politi- cal centers in this region. e research method used is the historical method by utilizing rel- evant secondary sources. e analysis results show that long before Christ, the Southeast Asian region had become an arena of maritime networks with India and was followed by China at the beginning of the century AD. e sea transportation network connecting India, China, and the Middle East has influenced the growth of ports in Southeast Asia, which has implications for economic development and political power in the classical kingdoms. e initial trading network that China built until the mid-6th century AD gave birth to the devel- opment of the Funan kingdom with the port of Oc-Eo. Meanwhile, the China-Malacca Strait direct network shut down Funan’s ports with the shipping technology revolution. It encour- aged the development of owned ports in the archipelago in succession in different periods, namely Sriwijaya, Majapahit, and Malacca, influencing economic and political consequenc- es. ese countries. e implications of this finding are the basis for generalizing the devel- opment of Pacific Asia trade and the economic and cultural interactions between maritime nations and regions worldwide.
Abstrak: Asia Tenggara memainkan peran penting dalam jaringan perdagangan global dari sebelum hingga abad ke-15 Masehi. Artikel ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis perubahan jaringan maritim pada periode klasik Asia Tenggara dan pengaruhnya terhadap perkem- bangan pelabuhan dan pusat politik di kawasan ini. Metode penelitian yang digunakan ada- lah metode sejarah dengan memanfaatkan sumber-sumber sekunder yang relevan. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa jauh sebelum Masehi, kawasan Asia Tenggara telah menjadi arena jaringan maritim dengan India dan diikuti oleh Cina pada awal abad Masehi. Jaringan transportasi laut yang menghubungkan India, Cina, dan Timur Tengah telah mempengaruhi pertumbuhan pelabuhan di Asia Tenggara, yang berimplikasi pada perkembangan ekonomi dan kekuatan politik di kerajaan-kerajaan klasik. Jaringan perdagangan awal yang dibangun Tiongkok hingga pertengahan abad ke-6 M melahirkan perkembangan kerajaan Funan dengan pelabuhan Oc-Eo. Sementara itu, jaringan langsung Selat Malaka-China menutup pelabuhan Funan dengan revolusi teknologi perkapalan. Hal tersebut mendorong berkem- bangnya pelabuhan-pelabuhan milik di Nusantara secara berturut-turut pada periode yang berbeda, yaitu Sriwijaya, Majapahit, dan Malaka, sehingga mempengaruhi konsekuensi ekonomi dan politik. Negara-negara ini. Implikasi dari temuan ini adalah dasar untuk menggeneralisasi perkembangan perdagangan Asia Pasifik dan interaksi ekonomi dan bu- daya antara negara dan wilayah maritim di seluruh dunia.
Cite this article: Man, N.M., Chi, N.T.P., Wasino, Hartatik, E.S. (2022). Ports, Maritime Networks, and Its Effect on the Development of the Ancient Kingdom of Southeast Asia. Paramita: Historical Studies Journal, 32(2), 202-211. http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/
paramita.v32i2.37833 Article history
Received : 2022-06-28 Accepted : 2022-09-08 Published : 2022-09-30
Keywords Ports,
Maritime network, Southeast Asia, Influence
Ports, Maritime Networks, and Its Effect on the Development of the Ancient Kingdom of Southeast Asia
Nguyen Minh Man1, Nguyen i Phuong Chi2, Wasino3, Endah Sri Hartatik4
1 Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, [email protected]
2 Viet Nam Academy of Social Science
3 Universitas Negeri Semarang
4 Diponegoro University
Available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/
INTRODUCTION
At this time, Southeast Asia is united in the political unity of international relations under the name Asian. e political unity is based on a common thought that Southeast Asian countries have com- mon geography, history, culture, and economy. Ge- ographically, Southeast Asian countries are an area that is nearby, although separated by water and mountains. Historically, most Southeast Asian countries received the influence of Indian and Chi- nese cultures before finally falling into the hands of Western colonialism—Indian and Chinese culture influences all aspects, including governance, arts, and food.
In classical times, Southeast Asian nations were united by territorial unity through maritime networks. e network is also related to the grow- ing world of trade in several regions in Southeast Asia, such as Funan, Chenla, Sriwijaya, and Malac- ca. At the same time, this network has become a factor in the growth and development of maritime countries and cities in the region known to the Western world as “land below the wind.” is ma- rine network also invites foreign nations to the Southeast Asian region. China and India were im- portant nations before the arrival of the West that used the Southeast Asian region as an area of trade relations, the territory of power, and the spread of culture. In short, the classic Maritime network has united the nations of Southeast Asia and connected them to the great countries of the world.
e archipelago countries that later became the Indonesian nation and the Vietnamese, Kambu- ja, and ais had established state relations with the kingdoms on the islands of Java and Sumatra. is relationship has even given birth to a family rela- tionship between Kambuja and Indonesia. e Southeast Asian maritime network has also become a medium of diplomacy for Southeast Asian nations at that time.
Several studies have been conducted on the classical maritime network in Southeast Asia. e first are works that discuss Southeast Asia in total, covering all periods. Second, Southeast Asian Stud- ies in a certain period. e discussion of Southeast Asia as a whole from the classical era, the colonial period, to the post-independence age is reflected in the classic work of D.G.E. Hall (D. G. E. Hall, 1981), a short piece by John F. Cady (Cady, 1964), and a new perspective on Southeast Asian History by M.C. Ricklefs (Ricklefs, M. C., Lockhart, B., & Lau, 2010), and A New Perspective of Southeast Asian History by historians edited by Arthur, win, and Hall (Aung-win, M., & Hall, 2011). e descrip-
tion of Southeast Asia in a certain period can be seen in Pluvier’s classic (Pluvier, 1974), which dis- cusses the history of Southeast Asia from colonial- ism to the independence period. Reid discusses the comprehensive history of Southeast Asia in the commercial age (Reid, 1988), while the history of Southeast Asia in the classical period is discussed again by win (win, 2011). e work of How- ard Dick and Rimmer discusses the development of cities in Southeast Asia regarding transportation and communication from the late nineteenth cen- tury to the twentieth century (Dick, Howard, &
Rimmer, 2011). ird, in addition to general histor- ical atrocities, the study of Southeast Asian history is also carried out thematically. omas Lindblad discusses the history of investment in Southeast Asia (Lindblad, 1998). Robert E. Elson discusses the economic history of farmers in Southeast Asia (Elson, 1997).
One of the exciting studies on the history of Southeast Asia is related to maritime networks.
Kenneth R Hall did monumental work on trade networks (Hall, 1985). is work discusses the his- tory of the classic Southeast Asian trade network and its influence on the emergence and develop- ment of Southeast Asian countries such as Funan, Sriwijaya, and Majapahit. is article will comple- ment the work by emphasizing the importance of the Southeast Asian trade network in classical times and the development of Southeast Asia’s political and economic map in the Indian and Chinese net- works. Shaffer’s work discusses the maritime histo- ry of Southeast Asia from 300 BC to 1528 AD, when Islam was fully present in this region (Shaffer, 2015). is book examines aspects that support the Southeast Asian maritime network regarding ship- ping that uses wind movements, namely the west monsoon and east monsoon winds. Because of the monsoons, the Southeast Asian regions invite na- tions and their cultures, ranging from China and India to Middle Eastern countries. Hoogervorst discusses the trans-regional maritime network of the Southeast Asian islands, which sharpens the history of the Indian Ocean (Hoogervorst, 2014).
is Oxford dissertation incorporates an archaeo- logical, historical linguistic approach to produce a cultural and linguistic reconstruction between Southeast Asia and the maritime environment.
Meanwhile, a compilation work that discuss- es the maritime traces of Southeast Asia on the sea- bed was carried out by Tan (Tan, 2012). e book discusses several articles that reveal maritime net- works based on historical sources of materials le
on the seabed in some Southeast Asian regions.
Meanwhile, Gaynor discusses that the Southeast Asian region has historically been a world trade route that allows nations from all over the world to cross this region (Gaynor, 2014). However, South- east Asian countries are not passive but actively take advantage of these geographical advantages to interact with foreign nations, which birth to politi- cal, economic, and cultural developments based on the advantages of Southeast Asian countries com- bining local knowledge with global knowledge, in- cluding in the maritime world.
METHOD
This research uses the historical method. It follows four stages: source tracing, source assessment, source interpretation, and historiography (Kartodirdjo, 2014; Kuntowijoyo, 2003; Tosh, 2015;
E. S. H. Wasino, 2020). The historical sources are primarily based on secondary sources, mainly from books and scientific journals on the history of Southeast Asia. These sources come from different years ranging from older to recent works. However, the frame of mind that inspired this article is the work of Kenneth R. Hall which proposes a thesis that the ups and downs of Southeast Asian trade networks in the classical period influenced the growth, development, and destruction of kingdoms in Southeast Asia (Hall, 2019)—based on Hall’s the- sis, made comparison a comparison between peri- ods, namely the period of early maritime network development, namely from the beginning century to mid-6th century AD and the development of Maritime networks Post-medieval 6th century AD to a 15th century. The historical interpretation is made by linking the growth of shipping technology, the growth of ports, and the development of the Maritime kingdoms in Southeast Asia over a long period. The article is presented with a chronological model from the early to the late phases of the histo- ry of the classic Southeast Asian trade network.
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN AND CHINESE NETWORKS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA The transportation network between India and Southeast Asia is ahead of China’s. It can be mapped the existence of records in Indian classical texts about the existence of Southeast Asia for sev- eral centuries BC. The term, which was later identi- fied as part of the Southeast Asian region, is con- tained in the records of the Ramayana. The book mentions the names Suvarnadvida and Java Dvipa.
The term Dvipa means land surrounded by the sea on both sides. Thus the area is a peninsula or island.
Survana means gold, while Java means barley.
Meanwhile, in the Puranas it is known as Mala- yadvipa and Yuran Dvipa, both located in the Southeast Asian region.
e land of lower Burma (Myanmar) and the Malay Peninsula is known as the land of gold. It is estimated that in the VI century BC, Indian traders had sailed to these lands. Indian sailors who had visited Southeast Asia in the BC period also clearly mentioned the countries in Southeast Asia. In the third century BC, Maharaja Asoka sent Buddhist monks to Survana Earth, a land of gold, a region that can be identified as present-day Myanmar. It can be understood that until now, Buddhism has been influential in mainland Southeast Asia.
As a result of the strategic position of South- east Asia, in the first and second centuries, the Southeast Asian region became quite busy and de- veloped. Many coastal areas quickly developed into large trading cities. In connection with this, Ptole- my, a natural scientist of Greci-Roman nationality who had lived in Alexandria (Egypt), created an Atlas in which he pointed to several essential ports in Southeast Asia. ese ports are located on the peninsula of Tanah Melayu, a golden peninsula or Suvarna Dvipa mentioned in the Ramayana. It is also called Labadiou or island barley. It is the same as Java Dvipa in the Ramayana, which means the islands of Java and Sumatra or Kalimantan.
Apart from India, the second crucial mari- time network with Southeast Asia is the one with China. Historical literature is widely known about the Asian trade route - Silk Road. e trade net- work that lasted centuries before Christ was a land route connecting China to the West to Europe through Central Asia and east to India. It is called the silk route because the main trade item used is silk cloth, the primary merchandise from China destined for the upper classes of Asian and Europe- an nations. Silk was then exchanged for European gold and Southeast Asian spices.
e silk road by land poses a security risk.
For this reason, trade network routes diverged by the sea at the beginning of the century AD. At that time, the trade network stretched from the southern Chinese peninsula through the Straits of Malacca, leading to southern India, the Middle East, and fi- nally, Europe. Since then, the Southeast Asian mari- time network has begun to develop, resulting in the growth of cities in this region.
A trade network developed by India followed the trade network that China had opened in South- east Asia. e network between Asian nations has increased the Southeast Asian region into an eco- nomic unity. Goods from India and China are con-
sumed by the people of Southeast Asia, while goods from Southeast Asia are consumed by the nations of India and China and are even sold to the Middle East and Europe. Spices are the essential ingredients of Southeast Asian trade, traded in India, the Mid- dle East, and Europe. In addition, fragrances are traded in the form of agarwood, sandalwood, and incense which are widely used for religious and elite purposes.
Southeast Asia’s local trade network positive- ly responded to the transfer of the silk route from land to sea. Traders who had initially grown up in important ports built relations with local traders and international traders, both among Southeast Asian, Chinese, and Indian traders who came later.
In other words, changes in international trade net- works have stimulated the growth of the maritime world in Southeast Asia, which has a strong tradi- tion.
International trade networks can enter local trade networks through two models. First is the trade network that reflects the riverine political sys- tem. In this system, the exchange network upstream of the river is connected with foreign trade in the coastal centers through representatives of the rulers of the mouth of the river. Second, trade networks were directed at Southeast Asian kingdoms in river valleys in the great lands of Southeast Asia and Java.
Contact with foreign traders is similar to what hap- pened in the first system. Trade was directed to coastal centers. Profits from trade are redistributed to establish the hegemony of the rulers. However, the rice valley economic landscape has a more sig- nificant potential for the evolution of an integrated and multilevel market exchange system that facili- tates political and social integration. In both eco- nomic systems, conflict with foreigners can be min- imized because trading activities are restricted to coastal ports. In that area, trade was carried out by indigenous traders who supplied rice, pepper, and other local products. Classical period maritime trade in Southeast Asia was divided into five trading areas. e first area covers the northern part of the Malay peninsula and the southern coast of Vi- etnam. ey were the first to openly accept and fa- cilitate East-West trade during the last millennium BC. At that time, Southeast Asia was seen by for- eign sailors as a link to the unknown territories be- tween India and China. e initial markers related to foreign nations were Malayo-Polynesian sailors who voyaged to the coasts of Africa in the West and China in the east. Travel through Southeast Asia by international traders became important in the sec- ond century AD. During the second and third cen-
turies, the transportation of goods shied by sea and sailed along maritime routes between the southeast coast of China to Bay, Bengal, through a country through the isthmus of Kra. e traders’
journey through Southeast Asia was followed by the development of ports in the western corner of the Mekong delta. By Chinese historical sources, the area was controlled by the Funan empire (Kenneth R Hall, 1985, p. 20).
The impact of India and China’s trade net- work has given rise to economic and political dy- namics in Southeast Asia. The dynamics are first driven by the emerging seaports or ports in the area through which the leading Indian and Chinese trade networks pass. Ports develop in such a way because there is an exchange of goods and money due to the mobility of people between nations and ethnic groups who stop at these ports both in the long and short term. Long-term stopover because many people between nations and islands settled in port cities in the long term, some of whom married residents and later became economic and political rulers in these ports at first, and some morphed into political rulers after a change of generations as a result of mixed marriage. Short stopovers are gener- ally carried out following the opposite wind flow between April-October and October-April. From the bustling ports of foreign swordsmen, especially India and China, the classical Southeast Asian countries that were quite monumental were born, which were initially the Kingdom of Funan in the peninsula region and then Srivijaya in the archipel- ago of Southeast Asia.
THE SHIFT OF TRADE ROUTES TO MARI- TIME SOUTH EAST ASIA AFTER THE SEV- ENTH CENTURY
Trade networks in the early centuries AD used boats with a reasonably short voyage range. Chinese boats cannot pass through the South China Sea di- rectly to the Straits of Malacca. As a result, they have to walk in chains through the ports before reaching the spice road intersection area. At that time, many Chinese merchants lived in the port of Oc-Eo, a vital port heritage site in the classical peri- od in Vietnam. This port is a port belonging to the kingdom of Funan. The port in the Mekong River delta, from the 1st century to the 7th century, be- came the most important port in Southeast Asia, which made the Funan kingdom very strong in its economy and developed its political power.
Funan was a maritime kingdom in Southeast Asia founded in Cambodia, whose power extended to South Vietnam (Indochina). The Kingdom of
Funan is thought to have existed in the first century AD, although the exact data on the kingdom’s es- tablishment is unclear. This kingdom developed along with the development of Southeast Asia’s maritime trade network, especially those linked be- tween China and India. The rulers of Funan man- aged to take advantage of international trade net- works to cultivate capital, enlarge their power, and strengthen their navy. This kingdom survived as the center of Southeast Asia’s most substantial mari- time empire for five centuries. This strength was built by combining international trade networks that had to take advantage of Funan’s ports, namely the Oc-Eo port and the Mekong river network, which made Funan’s inland products sell well in the international market. At that time, China’s depend- ence on Funan was relatively high because Chinese ships had to stop at its international ports before they continued their journey to other ports that would pass to the Middle East.
The name Funan signifies how close the working relationship is with China, although cul- turally, it is also heavily influenced by In- dia. Funan is a modern Chinese word derived from the pronunciation of the word “b’iu-nam”, a trans- literation of the ancient Khmer language “bnam- banam”, meaning the same as “Phnom” in modern Khmer, which means mountain. The kingdom’s actual name is unknown, but its king did use the title “Krung Bnam”, which means the same as
“Sailraja” in Sanskrit. The kingdom’s center was Wijadhapura (the city of hunters), more or less southeast of present-day Phnom Penh.
e oldest news about the Funan kingdom comes from the writings of K’ang Tai, a member of the Chinese royal mission to Funan in the III centu- ry. According to the news, the founder was named Fun-T’ien (hun-T’ien), a translation of Kaundinya, the place of its founder according to local legend.
Because the name of Funan is from a Chinese source, the actual name of the kingdom was not Funan, but because no inscription mentions the name of the kingdom, the designation given from Chinese sources is now being used to name the strongest maritime kingdom in Southeast Asia.
In the kingdom, which was initially only lo- cally based, during the time of king Fan-Shih-Man (who died in the first quarter of the third century), Funan began to spread its wings and grew into an Empire. e greatest king was Kaundinya Jayavar- man (who died in 514). His successor was his son, Rudrawarman. Aer this king died in approximate- ly 550 AD, then the throne of Funan was taken by his brother Bhawawarman who ruled like king
Chen-La. Bhawawarman succeeded in becoming the king of Chenla due to his marriage to the ruler of Chen-La. Wijadhapura was occupied, and the center of Funan was forced to move to the strait;
only in 627 was Funan wholly conquered by Chen- La (King Icanawarman). e kingdom was original- ly under Funan’s rule by sending tribute as a loyalty token. It is located north of Funan.
As mentioned above, the kingdom of Funan was the first maritime empire in Southeast Asia. Its home region is the Mekong Delta and the region around the Tonle Sap. At the time of his greatness, the entire Mekong delta and lower Mekong valley, along with the Suzerainiteit areas in the northern Malay peninsula. (Tan-Mei-Liu, Lang-Ya-Siu and P'an P'an) And Menam valley (the Mon Dwarawati Kingdom or, according to the Chinese people: Tun- Sun). erefore, in this era of greatness, Funan con- trolled the transportation roads in the northern part of the Malay Peninsula (the crossing from the An- daman Sea to the Gulf of Siam) and the waters of the Gulf of Siam. Funan’s navy supervised the trade from its port city through these transportation routes. Funan ships sailed far into the Chinese king- dom, as merchant ships or as royal emissaries. Chi- na has very close relations, both politically and eco- nomically. It is evident in the dynastic records of the Chinese kings, who reported the sending of messengers from the kings of Funan many times.
Almost every king sent this envoy.
Although the relationship with China is eco- nomically powerful, the State of Funan is included in the sphere of influence of Hindu civilization. is influence entered Funan from the second hand, namely through the kingdoms of the northern Ma- lay Peninsula and the kingdom of Mon Dwarawati.
Hinduism (Caiwa and Waicanawa) and Buddhism both prevail in Funan. “Caiwa” was the official reli- gion of the Funan kings, but it was also Vishnu’s reverence. Buddhism is influential, especially among ordinary people.
e Funan kingdom collapsed around the year 550 AD. Several factors caused Funan’s col- lapse. e first and most decisive factor was the change in the shipping route from China which initially passed through Funan to get to the Malacca Strait. At the beginning of the VI century AD, there was a change in technology in shipping in China.
Chinese sailing ships that were initially only able to carry out coastal voyages at that time had been able to sail further and dared to pass through the South China Sea to get to the Malacca Strait. Since then, many Chinese sailors or traders who headed to Ma- lacca and beyond from sea trade routes to India, the
Middle East, and the Mediterranean did not need to pass through Funan. is change resulted in Fu- nan’s economy’s collapse, which depended on sea trade and foreign exchange from international trad- ers. e second factor was the attack from Chenia, an inland kingdom once a vassal of Funan. is kingdom was once a source of food and labor. Now he has let go, even trying to seize Funan’s position (Wasino, 2022).
Aer the ancient nation, Funan, had been eliminated from the South East Asia map for objec- tive and subjective reasons, the trade route through South East Asia shied to maritime regions through the important straits such as Sunda and Malacca.
is change resulted from improving and develop- ing maritime technology and navigation skills of people in the region. Additionally, aer the voyage of the monk Phap Hien via channels in South East Asia, trade boats and people from outside started their voyages toward a southerly point of the Ma- laya Peninsula to explore navigation to approach Chinese and Japanese markets. erefore the tradi- tional maritime route through Kra Channel lost its strategic position.
e commerce in South East Asia started developing from the seventh to fieenth century compared to Funan in the early centuries. e role of Funan had been a transit port for international transportation where traders could stop for fuel refills and food supplies to continue their east-to- west journeys. On the other hand, the ports of Sriwijaya, Majapahit, and Malacca were busy re- gional trade centers where goods were exchanged between traders, and standards of measurement and monetary systems became popular. e foun- dation of those ports contributed to the awareness and popularity of special spices in maritime South East Asia, including clove, agarwood, and nutmeg, which gained tremendous value in exchange and trade in those ports and became sought-aer spe- cialties for traders.
e establishment and development of the ancient ports significantly contributed to maritime trade in South East Asia. ese ports also witnessed cultural exchanges within the region, between re- gions, and international approaches. Furthermore, they even became religious states, such as the foun- dation and development of Islamic Malacca in the fieenth century is the predominant case in this sense.
Sriwijaya: the first trade center in maritime South East Asia
Sriwijaya was formed by its ancient state, Kantoli,
which pursued an open trade policy with China.
Due to the strategic position in maritime transpor- tation which connected the Pacific and the Indian Ocean, Sunda and Malacca channels were the cru- cial point where trade boats had to pass through on the voyage from east to West. erefore the devel- opment of Sriwijaya resulted from ancient Kantoli with two hundred years of history.
Aer the demise of Funan, the Kingdom of Sriwijaya vastly expanded its border, which con- tained the whole of Sumatra Island, the southern part of Malaya Peninsula (from the Straits of Era toward the south). Moreover, it occupied the chan- nel of Sunda. e nation established its governance on tribes in the controlled areas and focused its power on Palembang.
Sriwijaya dominated maritime commerce passing through South East Asia between AD 670 and 1025. It gained its status and trust from traders by controlling the seas in the strait region, putting down piracy in the most southerly point of Malaya.
Meanwhile, it also motivated exchange and trade with traders from countries east of Sumatra, such as Jambi and Palembang. Local supplies that were popular and became sought-aer products were
Figure 1. Sriwijaya Kingdom
pepper, nutmeg, clove, and Chinese silk. Further- more, passing traders needed to stop in Palembang for food and water supply in order to carry on their east-to-west voyage. e name t L Ph t became a trustworthy brand in the markets for Chi- nese and Indian traders. Sriwijaya was the priority in exchanging local goods and silk in many differ- ent reigns of the Chinese monarchy. Foreign trade was the strength of this nation, and its existence was based on the connection of the nearby trade center in which Palembang was the center of the network- ing. Srivijaya was once thought of as a “federation of trading ports on the fringe of large areas of for- est,…not a state with territorial boundaries, but a series of interlocked human relationships among harbor principalities and pirate lair based on pat- ronage, loyalty, and power” (Hall, 1985, p. 79).
Chinese traders called Sriwijaya Kim Chau –
金州
(the gold land). ey observed that people overlaid statues of Buddha with gold. In Chinese historical documents, in 1082 AD, the delegation of envoys from this region carried a tribute to the Chi- nese Empire.Arab traders also recognized this: “daily, the king’s subjects ceremoniously threw gold bricks into an estuary. However, they were not precisely throwing gold to the waters as one might toss mon- ey to the wind. When the king died, the gold would be dredged out, and his successor would then dis- tribute it to the court’s allies and retainer, thus ce- menting their relationship with the new king in a critical moment of transition (Shaffer, 1996, p. 38).
Due to its economic focus, Palembang domi- nated maritime South East Asia’s political and cul- tural perspective. e name Palembang originated from the popularity of Buddhism in this nation. e monk Nghia Tinh (AD 635 - 713) lived here for several years and believed this was a perfect stop- ping point for monks who wished to carry on their journey to India by sea as the king well treated the monks in this country: In the fortified city of Fo- che, Buddhist priests number more than one thou- sand, whose minds are bent on learning and good practices. ey investigate and study all subjects, just as in Madhyadesa [India]; the rules and cere- monies are not all different (Well, 1990, p. 64).
e growth of trade in Sriwijaya required the king to appoint a “tuha anvatakvurak” who was a functionary responsible for managing foreign trade.
His primary duties were to stabilize prices and initi- ate exchange forms in trade. ey first calculate the value of their articles according to their equivalents in gold or silver and then engage in (the) barter of these articles at fixed rates. For example, one tong
of samshu is equal to one tael of silver, and ten tongs are equal to one tael of gold (Kenneth R Hall, 1985, p. 99).
erefore, the rise of Sriwijaya resulted from the ability to gain control of the Straits of Sunda and Malacca for seven centuries, the trade in these ports was remarkably maritime. e kingdom’s role ended when it was invaded by the Chinese and re- bellions from minority tribes in the eleventh centu- ry.
Majapahit: e flourish of Java trade
ere was an early state established on Java island called Trauma (western Java) which coexisted with the rise of Sriwijaya on the island of Sumatra in the seventh century. In the early stage, Taruma was a vassal state of Sriwijaya due to its small size and weak power. However, Taruma benefited from fer- tile plain Kedu, which was advantaged in develop- ing agriculture and growing spice plants. Trauma had not dominated trade routes through the sea from east to West. Traders called this small country Kalinga.
At the end of the XIII century, Nguyen Em- pire required tribute from king Kritanagara, but he declined it. In late AD 1292, Nguyen Empire took twenty thousand soldiers to invade Java as punish- ment for his rejection. e Kritanagara led the re- bellion against the Chinese invasion. Aer the vic- tory against the Chinese, Kritanagara was crowned and based in Majapahit, and the regime’s rise on Java island began. Majapahit border included Java island, Sumatra, southwest Kalimantan, Sulawesi island, and Molucu island.
From the twelh century, the maritime com- merce of Majapahit was famous for its local spice such as pepper, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Majapahit and Java are destinations for Western traders in the thirteenth century due to significant demands for spice in Western markets. Maco Polo arrived in Majapahit in this century and noticed that:
“Java….is of …surpassing wealth, produc- ing….all….kinds of spices,….frequented by a vast amount of shipping, and by merchants who buy and sell costly goods from which they reap great profit. Indeed, the treasure of this island is so great as to be past telling” (Kenneth R Hall, 1985, p. 210).
Canggu was an important trade center on the Branta River, dominating trade in Majapahit and maritime South East Asia. Ma Huan - a Chinese ambassador, described this place as “Changku” by sailing 70 – 80 li (twenty-five miles) upriver on the Brantas from Surabaya on the coast, and from there, one could reach the Majapahit capital by
walking for half a day (Kenneth R Hall, 1985, p.
235).
Pararaton, known as the Book of Kings, stat- ed between the fieenth century and sixteenth that Canggu was an inter-change center connecting ports and inland cities. Java was also well known for its local spice under the Majapahit regime.
Majapahit became wealthy in the east and west spice trade system. e trade activities took place in Bubat - a city located in southern Majapahit. Many traders from nations such as Ayuthaya, Combodia, Dai Viet, and India, particularly Chinese traders, outnumbered them.
Foreign traders also observed that markets are set up in a vast square surrounded by buildings covered with friezes that depict famous scenery from renowned historical poems of Mahabharata.
e trade of Majapahit motivated Java to reach its golden age of trade in history as it gathered all the necessary factors which created a vital trade and leading economy in maritime South East Asia.
e golden age of maritime commerce in South- east Asia: Islamic state of Malacca
e fieenth century was considered the golden age of trade in South East Asia. e internal and exter- nal relationship between nations significantly devel- oped in this region. is catalyst motivated the trade progress of China and South East Asia. e relationship between the Minh dynasty and Malac-
ca that the king’s eunuch Trinh Hoa drove was the most remarkable correlation in this period.
e creation and rise of Malacca were closely linked to Paramesvara - a prince of Sailendra on Sumatra island who married a princess - a daughter of Hayam Wuruk - King of Majapahit in Java island during 1350-1389.
Marriage was an advantage for both coun- tries in this region. In 1389 Hayam Wuruk died, and his son became his successor. However, the new king had no confidence in the monarchy due to the lack of reputation and capability, which led to chaos and domestic division.
Paramesvara took advantage of the circum- stance to take over the crown from his brother-in- law. However, his rebellion was defeated, and he fled to Tumasik- now known as Singapore. Aer his arrival, he killed Sri Mahajara Paduka - king of Sin- gapore, to gain the throne. He reigned Singapura from 1392 to 1398. His strong character refused to be a vassal king under the ai dynasty - an influen- tial power. Paramesvara was invaded by the ai King, who accused him of killing his vassal king. In 1398. he le Singapura, wandered for two years, and floated to the fishing village of Malacca - a loca- tion in wrested Malaya Peninsula.
Eco-political relationship between China and Malacca was founded on significant regional chang- es in the fieenth century. In 1403, Minh Emperor sent Au Kinh to promote maritime trade and rela- Figure 2. Asia trade distribution from 1000-1400
tions with the countries in this region. In the early stage of the new state establishment, Paramesvara requested to be a vassal under the ai King and was accepted. However, the political changes in the region caused new king Paramesvara to consider a strategic foreign policy which, on the one hand, prevented the influence of the ai King and coop- erated with Chinese traders. On the other hand, integrated Islam into the country to gain a close relationship with Muslim traders - an emerging power in the West.
Paramesvara prioritized the political relation- ship with Ming Dynasty. Moreover, it emphasized the creation and development of trade between these two countries, especially when it thrived for economic power.
Trinh Hoa followed Au King’s journey and strengthened the eco-political correlation between China and Malacca. e nature of Trinh Hoa’s voy- ages was more political than economic. e prima- ry purpose was to observe and control maritime trade routes through South East Asia. e recogni- tion of Malacca was written in Man ich Gia - Book -of Ming dynasty history. In the tenth month of Vinh Lac (
永乐
-Yomgle), an envoy from the south brought a special tribute to ask for recogni- tion of a state. e country had no king previously and was a vassal of Xiem La, but now was persuad- ed by the reputation and power of the (Minh) dyn- asty. erefore our Emperor conferred that Param- esvara was a king, and the coronation would be in the capital next September.” (林远辉
, 1991, p. 42).Chinese traders were interested in Malacca from the early days. During Ming Dynasty (
明朝
), Ma Hoan (马欢
), who assisted Trinh Hoa（郑和）
during South East trips had, written about Malaca, particularly emphasizing the economy of this na- tion in “
瀛涯胜览
” - a historical document. Ma Hoan (马欢
), writing that was considered an origi- nal version for generations of historians, has de- scribed:(1) There was a river that connected the coast of this country. The King of Malacca built a palace with more than twenty more cham- bers on the river; everything was traded here.
(2) Some specialties were exchanging goods and famous in the Malacca market; Da Ma Nha Huong, Do Lo Tu, and Hoa Tich. Hoa Tich was used as money and made up of pewter. Hoa Tich was molded into a block and divided into small cubes for the conven- ience of transportation. Each cube weighed about 1.8 kilograms. Ten cubes are packed
into a small bag, and 40 cubes make up a big bag. This type of pewter was used as a pay- ment method in the market.
Additionally, Ma Hoan described the ware- house and trade boats that Trinh Hoa led to this country. Chinese trade boats arrived here and gath- ered to make a long line like a city wall designed with four empty floors at four doors and being nightly checked with the bell rings. ere was a bar- rier built inside, which resembled a small city. Stor- ages were built for urgent food and money supply for the Chinese boats. Aer they trade in different countries, all the trade boats are gathered here. All goods were then transferred into big boats. ey all waited for the southern wind, which went in the right direction, and started their journey home around mid-May (
高伟浓
, 1995, pp. 196–197).In this period, the expansion of Chinese trad- ers in Malacca marked a milestone in Chinese im- migration influx into South East Asia. During seven times arriving in Malacca, Trinh Hoa led 60 boats and 27,000 people from diverse backgrounds and social statuses, including farmers, nobles, servants, soldiers, and scholars, and contributed a significant percentage compared to other countries. ose im- migrants first came for trade and then integrated into the local lifestyle. Nowadays, Chinese people in Malaysia play an important economic and political role in the South East Asia region.
CONCLUSION
e history of trade in South East Asia is a long process of creation, development, and demise of ancient trade centers and port markets. e estab- lishment and evolution of those ancient markets are related to the changes in regional history. e inter- national maritime network in Southeast Asia influ- ences the ports’ development. As a result, the devel- opment of these ports impacts economic growth and political power in Southeast Asia. e role of ancient ports in maritime South East Asia was not only transit ports for Chinese, Indian, and West Asian traders but also had a significant influence on South East Asia and world trade, such as ports of Sriwijaya, Majapahit, and Malacca. ey were not just economic centers but also cultural ones where the exchange of culture and civilization occurred during this period of history. Predominant or non- predominant positions in the changes of history had a principal role in the rise or demise of ancient ports in maritime South East Asia. e develop- ment or collapse of the ancient port markets and trade centers in maritime South East Asia le a val-
uable legacy in history. e nations which appreci- ate and apply the historical legacy will develop.
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