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4 The critical literature review 51
She was the Chair of the Department of Management and also the Director of University Women's Professional Advancement at SIUC when she retired from the University and moved to California to be closer to her family. Dr Bougie is ad hoc reviewer for the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, the Journal of Business Research, the Journal of Marketing Research, and Marketing Letters.
CHANGES IN THE SEVENTH EDITION
The great strength of Research Methods for Business is that students find it clear, informal, user-friendly and not intimidating.
HOW TO USE THIS SEVENTH EDITION
If you are reading the book because you are involved in a project (consulting project, research project, or dissertation), then the order in which you read the chapters is your own choice. Depending on the type of research questions and whether your research questions make your study qualitative or quantitative in nature, you may choose to read the book in the following ways.
COMPANION WEBSITES
This means that we advise you to start by reading the first three chapters which introduce research, different approaches to what good research is, and the development of a problem statement and a research proposal.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Introduction to research
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In other words, good decision-making results in a "yes" answer to the following questions: Do we identify exactly where the problem is? And finally, do we know how to use the results of this process to solve the problem.
Business research
As we all know, sometimes they make the right decision and the problem is solved; sometimes they make bad decisions and the problem remains; and sometimes they make such horrendous mistakes that they get stuck in the mud. Are we able to use the information collected in this way and draw appropriate conclusions for the right decisions.
The role of theory and information in research
Research and the manager
Not only are problems within any sub-area related to many factors within that particular system, but they must also be explored in the context of the external environment facing the firm. For example, economic, political, demographic, technological, competitive, and other important global factors may affect certain company-related dynamics.
TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC
In short, research conducted with the aim of applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being encountered in an organization is called applied research. Research that is done primarily to make a contribution to existing knowledge is called basic, fundamental or pure research.
Applied research
The findings of such research contribute to building knowledge in the different functional areas of business; they teach us something we didn't know before.
Basic or fundamental research
As illustrated, the key distinction between applied research and basic business research is that the former is specifically aimed at solving a currently experienced problem within a specific organization, while the latter has the broader objective of generating knowledge and understanding of phenomena and problems arising occur. in various organizational settings. For this reason, both basic and applied research is often conducted in a scientific manner (discussed in the next chapter) so that the findings or results resulting from them can be relied upon to effectively solve the problem under investigation.
MANAGERS AND RESEARCH
University professors are engaged in basic research to understand and create more knowledge about various aspects of companies, for example, how to improve the efficiency of information systems, integrate technology into the overall strategic goals of the organization, evaluate the impact of marketing measures, increase the productivity of employees in service industries , monitor cases of sexual harassment in the workplace, increase the efficiency of small businesses, evaluate alternative stock valuation methods, change the institutional structure of financial and capital markets, etc.
Why managers need to know about research
For example, an internal research group within the organization will not be able to distort information or manipulate findings to their advantage if managers are aware of the biases that can creep into research and know how data is analyzed and interpreted. Assess and be constantly aware of the multiple influences and effects of the factors influencing a situation.
The manager and the consultant–researcher
For example, the research team will likely request that management inform the employees of the subsequent research and its broad purpose to allay any fears they may have. Relevant philosophies and value systems of the organization are clearly stated and limitations, if any, are communicated.
INTERNAL VERSUS EXTERNAL CONSULTANTS/RESEARCHERS
Clarifying the issue gives the research team the opportunity to either accept the assignment and find alternative ways to address the problem, or regret the inability to carry out the project. In either case, both the organization and the research team will be better off having discussed their value orientations, avoiding potential frustration on both sides.
Internal consultants/researchers
The team takes much less time to understand the organization's structure, philosophy and climate, as well as the operation and work systems. Certain organizational biases of the internal research team may, in some cases, make the findings less objective and therefore less scientific.
External consultants/researchers
This is very important because any "mistakes" in the implementation of the recommendations can be removed with their help. The in-house team can cost much less than an outsourced team for the department seeking help in solving problems because they will need less time to understand the system due to their constant involvement with different units of the organization.
KNOWLEDGE ABOUT RESEARCH AND MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS
The degree to which internal team members are kept abreast of the latest problem-solving techniques can vary considerably from one organization to another. As a manager, you will be the one who will make the final decision to implement the recommendations made by the research team.
ETHICS AND BUSINESS RESEARCH
Remaining objective, focusing on problem solutions, fully understanding the recommendations made and why and how they have been arrived at makes for good managerial decision making.
SUMMARY
In order to make a decision, a manager must be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of both and weigh the advantages and disadvantages of using either of them according to the specific needs of the situation. As the manager, you will be the one who will make the final decision to implement the recommendations of the researcher or research team.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
To acquire or not to acquire: that is the question
Companies are very interested in acquiring other companies, even if the latter operate in completely unrelated areas of business. Such acquisitions are claimed to "work miracles". Given the volatility of the stock market and the slowdown in operations, many companies are not sure whether such acquisitions represent too much risk.
Reasons for absenteeism
For example, Coca-Cola has announced that it wants to buy China Huiyuan Juice Group to expand its operations in one of the fastest growing beverage markets in the world. At the same time, they also wonder if they are missing out on a great business opportunity if they don't take the risk.
Effects of service recovery on customer satisfaction
CASE
THE LAROCHE CANDY COMPANY
He is the great-great-grandson of company founder Henricus Laroche and the current chairman and CEO of the company. These statistics have raised many concerns and fears about the takeover of the company from his father.
CASE QUESTIONS
Seriously, Dad, I believe that strong family values are very important, but I also think that they can put limits on the company's development. It is generally known that familism in Southern Italy is one of the main reasons for the slower economic development of the South compared to the North.
The scientific approach and alternative approaches to investigation
Scientific research focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step logical, organized and rigorous method for identifying problems, collecting data, analyzing them and drawing conclusions from them. Thus, scientific research is not based on hunches, experience and intuition (although these may play a role in the final decision), but is purposeful and rigorous.
THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
BusinessWeek, Fortune and the Wall Street Journal, among other business magazines and newspapers, from time to time publish articles about organizations that get into trouble as a result of bad decisions made based on hunches and/or insufficient information.
Purposiveness
Rigor
Conclusions drawn from an investigation that lacks a good theoretical foundation, as evidenced by reason 3, and methodological sophistication, as evidenced by 1 and 2 above, are unscientific. These factors enable the researcher to collect the right kind of information from an appropriate sample with the minimum degree of bias, and facilitate suitable analysis of the data collected.
Testability
There may be many other important influences on organizational commitment that this small sample of respondents did not or could not verbalize during the interviews and were therefore not included by the researcher. Rigor in research design also enables the achievement of the other six characteristics of science, which we will now discuss.
Replicability
Replication is made possible by a detailed description of the details of the study design, such as the sampling method and data collection methods that were used. Reproducibility is the extent to which a re-study is made possible by providing details of the study design in the research report.
Precision and confidence
Objectivity
Such a futile exercise is therefore based on unscientific interpretation and application of research results. The more objective the interpretation of the data, the more scientific the research study becomes.
Generalizability
Although managers or researchers may start with some initial subjective values and beliefs, their interpretation of the data must be free from personal values and biases. When managers attempt to conduct their own research, they must be particularly sensitive to this aspect.
Parsimony
Likewise, if research shows that higher wages will not increase employee job satisfaction, implementing a revised, increased compensation system will only drag the company down financially without achieving the desired goal.
THE HYPOTHETICODEDUCTIVE METHOD
The seven-step process in the hypothetico-deductive method
Another criterion and one of the central principles of the hypothetico-deductive method is that the hypothesis must also be reproducible. Another conclusion from this data analysis is that our employee responsiveness accounts for (or explains) 9% of the variance in customer switching (0.32).
Application of the hypothetico-deductive method in organizations
The CIO Dilemma
Review of the hypothetico-deductive method
This method of starting with a theoretical framework, formulating hypotheses, and drawing logical conclusions from the results of the study is known as (you probably already know) the hypothetico-deductive method. From discussions with some of the vendors, the manager may find that the factory does not supply goods on time and promises new delivery dates that, on occasion, it does not keep.
Some obstacles to conducting scientific research in the management area
The results of the study help the researcher infer or conclude that controlling the aversive noise actually helps the participants to improve their performance on mental puzzles. During these conversations, the manager may find that customers like the products but are upset because many of the items they need are often out of stock and they perceive the salespeople as unhelpful.
ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH
Positivism
Constructionism
Constructionists are particularly interested in how people's views of the world are the result of interactions with others and the context in which they take place. Focus groups and unstructured interviews allow them to collect rich data, oriented to the contextual uniqueness of the world being studied.
Critical realism
Constructionists are often more concerned with understanding a specific case than with generalizing their findings. This makes sense from the constructionist's point of view; there is no objective reality to generalize about.
Pragmatism
Conclusion
In short, your view of the nature of knowledge and of how we come to know will greatly influence the research questions you ask, your research design and the research methods you will use. Your view of the nature of knowledge and how we come to know things will greatly influence the research questions you ask, your research design and the research methods you will use.
The Mobile Phone Company
According to the latest figures from the regulator, Ofcom, the mobile phone company was the most complained about mobile phone provider – with 0.15 complaints per 1,000 – in the last three months of 2014. Earlier in this book we described business research as a systematic . and organized effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in the work setting.
THE BROAD PROBLEM AREA
Indeed, managers must be alert and responsive to what is going on both within their organization and in its environment in order to make effective decisions and develop effective actions. The origin of most research stems from the desire to get a handle on issues, concerns and conflicts within the company or in its environment.
Defining and refining the problem
However, these problems also have in common that they have yet to be turned into a research topic for research. Indeed, once a management problem is identified, it must be narrowed down to a researchable topic for study.
Problems versus symptoms of problems
Very often, a lot of work is required to translate the broad problem into a feasible research topic. The introduction of flexible working hours has created more problems than it has solved” provides a fine starting point for a research project, but it lacks the specificity and focus needed to investigate it.
Bringing clarity and focus to the problem
Note that this process is not linear; At the beginning of our project we will have to switch back and forth between preliminary research and (re)defining the problem (see Box 3.2). In the early stages of the research process you will have to spend time alternating between preparatory research (for example an initial literature search) and (re)defining the problem statement.
How the selection of an academic perspective will help us to narrow down our research
Until you have developed a first preliminary problem statement, you cannot decide what information is useful. However, awareness and understanding of current work and views in the topic area can change your perspective on what the problem is and encourage you to refine the problem statement; a more precise problem statement may trigger the need to gather further information that may inspire you to reformulate the problem statement.
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
Nature of information to be gathered
The accuracy of data can be affected by who collected it and how the data was collected. Not all of the secondary data you find will be relevant to your specific needs.
DEFINING THE PROBLEM STATEMENT
What makes a good problem statement?
The above problem formulation deals with both the study's objectives and the research questions. A problem formulation is possible if you are able to answer the research questions within the limitations of the research project.
Well-defined research questions
A problem statement is relevant if it is significant from a management perspective, an academic perspective, or both. A common problem in terms of feasibility is that the problem statement is too broad in scope.
Basic types of questions: exploratory and descriptive
Such information can later enable comparison of the performance levels of specific types of companies. A marketing manager wants to know if the sales of the company will increase if he increases the advertising budget.
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Here, the manager would like to know the nature of the relationship that can be established between advertising and sales by testing the hypothesis: "If advertising increases, sales will also increase." For this reason, it is quite common to conduct exploratory research before moving on to descriptive or causal studies in order to develop a thorough understanding of the phenomenon being studied.
Research proposal to study retention of new employees
Purpose of the study
Research question
Scope of the study
Relevance of the study
The research design (i.e., details of the study)
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
ETHICAL ISSUES IN THE PRELIMINARY STAGES OF INVESTIGATION
Time frame
Budget
Selected bibliography
Once the proposal is accepted, the researcher conducts the research and goes through the appropriate steps discussed in the research design process. When employees are willing to participate in the study, they have the right to be protected from physical or psychological harm.
Checklist for dealing with ethical considerations and dilemmas during the first stages of the research process
Learning objective 5: To be aware of the role of the manager in the early stages of the research process. Learning objective 6: Be aware of the role of ethics in the early stages of the research process.
Employee loyalty
The 'secret' to bringing clarity and focus to your problem is to isolate the key ideas in the first version of the problem statement." What are the subjects, verbs, and objects of the following statement. The chapter opens with a definition of the critical literature review, followed by a discussion of its functions.
The critical literature review
A critical review of the literature helped Emma, George and Jim (checkbox 4.2) to become familiar with relevant knowledge related to the problem they set out to solve. In this regard, a second review of the literature provides Jim with a framework for his own work.
HOW TO APPROACH THE LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is useful in both an academic (or basic) and a non-academic (or applied) context. In summary, a critical review of the literature will unlock many useful insights about your research topic; it will allow you to work in an expert manner, to make informed decisions and to benefit from existing knowledge in many different ways.
Data sources
The amount of information that can be found on the World Wide Web is enormous. As a result, the Internet presents tremendous challenges in determining the usefulness and reliability of information.
Searching for literature
Evaluating the literature
In a similar way, the table of contents and the first chapter of the book can help you judge the relevance of the book. The quality of the journal that published the article can also be an indicator of the quality of the article.
Documenting the literature review
In your literature review, there are elements of a literature review that you select and read; the new whole is the conclusion you draw from these findings. As mentioned earlier, details on referencing style and citations based on the APA manual can be found in the appendix at the end of this chapter.
Organizational effectiveness
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2012) provides detailed information on citations, citations, references, etc., and is one of the accepted referencing styles in the management field. Finally, let's take a portion of a completed literature review and explore how the activity helped to (1) introduce the topic of study, (2) identify the problem statement, and (3) build on previous research to lay the foundation to offer. from which the next steps of the theoretical framework and hypothesis development can be moved.
ETHICAL ISSUES
The precise purpose of a critical literature review depends on the research approach used.”. The first step in a literature review involves identifying and accessing the materials available on the topic of interest.
PRACTICE PROJECT
SOME ONLINE RESOURCES USEFUL FOR BUSINESS RESEARCH
Online databases
The Business Periodicals Index (BPI) provides an index of business and management periodicals, and is available online and on CD‐ROM
The International Bibliography of the Social Sciences (IBSS) is an online resource for social science and interdisciplinary research. IBSS includes over 2.5 million bibliographic records relating to the four
RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a collaborative effort of volunteers in 63 countries to enhance the dissemination of research in economics. The heart of the project is a decentralized database of
SSRN (Social Science Research Network) is devoted to the rapid worldwide dissemination of social science research and is composed of a number of specialized research networks in each of the
World Development Indicators (World Bank) is a database, produced by the World Bank, containing statistical data from 1970 onwards on the economic and social development of 223 countries
On the Web
Lexis-Nexis Universe provides company and industry specific information, including company reports, stock information, industry trends and the like. Business pages in newspapers, magazines, government, financial markets, companies and industry, law, marketing and advertising, statistics, etc.
Accounting
Management
Financial economics
Marketing
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DATABASES
APA FORMAT FOR REFERENCING RELEVANT ARTICLES
These are based on the format from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) (2012), the Chicago Manual of Style (2010) and Turabian's Manual for Writers (2013). All citations included in the research report appear in the References section at the end of the report.
Specimen format for citing different types of references (APA format)
Since APA format is followed for referencing by many management journals, we will use this below to highlight the differences in how books, journals, newspaper articles, dissertations, etc. are referenced. In the next section we will discuss how these references should be cited in the literature review section.
Referencing non-print media
REFERENCING AND QUOTATION IN THE LITERATURE REVIEW SECTION
If the work has no author, please include the first two or three words of the article title in the text. When the same author has several works published in the same year, list them in the same order as they appear in the reference list, with in-print citations last.
Quotations in text
A theoretical framework is the foundation of hypothetico-deductive research, as it forms the basis of the hypotheses you will develop. Indeed, the development of a theoretical framework is crucial in deductive, theory-testing, and causal research (but not in exploratory or descriptive research where one does not develop a theoretical framework to develop and test hypotheses).
Theoretical framework and hypothesis development
The chapter begins with a definition of a theoretical framework followed by a discussion of the need for a theoretical framework. It explains that a theoretical framework involves identifying a network of relationships between variables that are considered important to the problem.
THE NEED FOR A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
VARIABLES
Each of these variables can be discrete (eg male/female) or continuous (eg age of the individual).
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Cross-cultural research shows that leadership values govern the power distance between superiors and subordinates. Here, power distance (ie, egalitarian boss-employee interactions versus a high-power superior in limited interaction with a low-power subordinate) is the object of interest and thus the dependent variable.
Moderating variable
This influence of worker characteristics on the relationship between the independent and dependent variables can be illustrated as shown in Figure 5.3(b). a) Diagram of the relationship between the independent variable (availability of reference manuals) and the dependent variable (rejections); (b) diagram of the relationship between the independent variable (availability of reference materials) and the dependent variable (rejections) as moderated by the moderating variable (interest and inclination). The differences between the effects of the independent and moderating variables can be visualized as in Figures 5.5(a) and 5.5(b).
Mediating variable
It is now easy to see what the differences are between an independent variable, a mediating variable, and a moderating variable. Create three different situations where motivation to work would be an independent variable, a mediating variable and a moderating variable.
HOW THEORY IS GENERATED
The components of the theoretical framework
A manager of an online company believes that avatar-mediated communication will have a positive effect on satisfaction with her company and on consumer purchase intentions, because avatars increase the value of information provided on the website and the pleasure of the enhance shopping experience. . She also believes that the positive effect of perceived information value on satisfaction with the company and purchase intentions is stronger when customers are highly involved.
HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
For example, avatars can be used as shopping assistants, site guides or as identification figures. Develop a theoretical framework for this situation after stating what the researcher's definition of the problem would be in this case.
Definition of a hypothesis
Avatars are virtual characters that can be used as representatives of a company that uses the Internet as a distribution channel.
Statement of hypotheses: formats
Directional and nondirectional hypotheses
However, it could be argued that the tendency to seek excitement and the preference for complex product designs are positively related, as previous research has shown such a relationship.
Null and alternate hypotheses
EXERCISE 5.13
Let's say the researcher finds a case where an individual is deliberately involved in the unethical practice of accepting bribes (despite the fact that he is knowledgeable enough to know right from wrong, doesn't need the money, and knows that the organization will not be indifferent to his behavior), simply because he wants to. The literature review and number of variables are intentionally kept small, as the goal is simply to illustrate how a theoretical framework is developed from the literature review and how hypotheses are developed based on the theoretical framework.
Literature review, theoretical framework, and hypothesis development
Introduction
A brief literature review
Theoretical framework
Women are generally unaware of the most recent developments as they are not part of the informal group that interacts and exchanges information away from the workplace. When women lack the critical information shared in informal networks, their chances of advancing to top positions are also severely limited.
Hypotheses
Learning objective 5: Demonstrate awareness of the manager's role in the development of a theoretical framework. It is then decided that the audit firm's reputation should also be included in the framework as an independent variable.
THE RESEARCH DESIGN
The next step is to design the research in such a way that the data needed to answer your research questions can be collected and analyzed to arrive at a solution to the problem that catalyzed the research project.
Elements of research design
As shown in Figure 6.1, each part of the research design offers several critical choice points. In addition to the above decisions regarding research design, choices must be made about the data collection method to use, the type of sample (sampling design), how variables will be measured (measurement), and how they will be measured. are analyzed to test the hypotheses (data analysis).
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Instead, you will have to make choices and create a design that is appropriate for the job at hand. The quality of a research design depends on how carefully you choose appropriate design alternatives, taking into account the specific objectives, research questions, and constraints of the project, such as access to data, time, and/or money.
Research strategies
In an experiment, the researcher manipulates the independent variable to study the effect of this manipulation on the dependent variable. Theoretical sampling is "the process of collecting data for theory generation in which the analyst jointly collects, codes, and analyzes data and decides what data to collect next and where to find it in order to develop theory of his as it comes" (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p. 45).
Extent of researcher interference with the study
Action research is therefore a constantly evolving project with interplay between problem, solution, effects or consequences, and new solution. A meaningful and realistic problem definition and creative ways of collecting data are critical to action research.
Minimal interference
Moderate interference
The effects are then evaluated, defined and diagnosed, and research continues continuously until the problem is fully resolved. In summary, the extent of researcher interference is related to whether the research questions are correlational or causal, and to the importance of establishing a causal relationship beyond a reasonable doubt.
Study setting: contrived and noncontrived
Excessive interference
Studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationships using the same natural environment in which the subjects being studied (employees, consumers, managers, and the like) normally function are called field experiments. Experiments conducted to establish a cause-and-effect relationship beyond the possibility of the slightest doubt require the creation of an artificial, engineered environment in which all extraneous factors are strictly controlled.
Field study
Here, as we saw earlier, the researcher is really interfering with the natural occurrence of events by manipulating the independent variable. For example, a manager who wants to learn the effects of pay on performance should increase the wages of employees in one unit, decrease the wages of employees in another unit, and leave the wages of employees in a third unit untouched.
Field experiment
Lab experiment
In summary, until now we have distinguished between (1) field studies, where various factors are studied in a natural environment in which daily activities are carried out normally with minimal intervention by researchers, (2) field experiments, where cause-and-effects are studied with a certain the degree of intervention of the researcher, but still in a natural environment where events continue in a normal way, and (3) laboratory experiments, where the researcher investigates cause-effect relationships, not only exercising a high degree of control, but also in an artificial and deliberately created environment. In Chapter 10, we will see the advantages and disadvantages of using fictional and non-fictional settings to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Unit of analysis: individuals, dyads, groups, organizations, cultures
Therefore, the nature of the information collected, as well as the level at which data is aggregated for analysis, is an integral part of decisions about the choice of the unit of analysis. It is necessary to decide on the unit of analysis even when formulating the research question, as the data collection methods, sample size, and even the variables included in the framework can sometimes be determined or controlled by the level at which data is collected for analysis.
Individuals as the unit of analysis
As our research question addresses issues that move away from the individual to dyads, and to groups, organizations and even nations, so the unit of analysis also shifts from individuals to dyads, groups, organizations and nations. The characteristic of these "levels of analysis" is that the lower levels are subsumed within the higher levels.
Dyads as the unit of analysis
Therefore, if we are studying purchasing behavior, we need to collect data from, say, 60 individuals and analyze it. If we want to study group dynamics, we may need to study, say, six or more groups and then analyze the collected data by examining the patterns in each of the groups.
Groups as the unit of analysis
If we want to study cultural differences between countries, we will have to collect data from different countries and study the underlying cultural patterns in each country. It is now even easier to see why the unit of analysis should be seriously considered even as the research question is formulated and the research design is planned.
Time horizon: cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies
Divisions as the unit of analysis
Industry as the unit of analysis
Countries as the unit of analysis
Data were collected from stock brokers between April and June of last year to study their concerns in a
However, well-planned longitudinal studies can, among other things, help identify cause-and-effect relationships. Longitudinal studies will certainly be necessary if a manager wants to track certain factors (e.g. sales, advertising effectiveness, etc.) over a period of time to assess improvements, or to determine possible causal relationships (sales promotions and actual sales data; frequency of drug testing and reduction in drug use, etc.).
MIXED METHODS
TRADEOFFS AND COMPROMISES
Knowing about research design issues helps the manager understand what the researcher is trying to do. Learning objective 4: Demonstrate awareness of the manager's role in research planning.
PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Data collection methods are an integral part of research design, as shown in the shaded part of Figure 7.1. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce a commonly used method of primary data collection: the interview.
INTERVIEWS
An in-depth knowledge of the most important methods will help you evaluate alternative approaches to collecting primary data (check box 7.1 for a further example). As you will understand, the primary decision about data collection—which includes the choice of method(s) of obtaining the necessary information—is interrelated with other steps in the research process.
Unstructured and structured interviews
For example, top and middle managers may be asked more direct questions about their perception of the problem and situation. The main purpose of the unstructured interview is to explore and investigate the several factors in the situation that may be central to the broad problem area.
Training interviewers
When a sufficient number of structured interviews have been conducted and sufficient information obtained to understand and describe the important factors operating in the situation, the researcher stops the interviews. In applied research, a tentative theory of the factors contributing to the problem is often conceptualized based on the information obtained from unstructured and structured interviews.
Some tips to follow when interviewing
If the answer is "serve the customer," the researcher can use another aspect of the respondent's job and ask the paired-choice question again. In this way, the respondent can sort out which aspects of the job he likes better than others.
Face-to-face and telephone interviews
Helping the respondent to think about the questions. If the respondent cannot verbalize his perceptions or answers: "I don't know," the researcher should ask the question in a simpler way or reformulate it. As mentioned earlier, another disadvantage of a telephone interview is that the researcher will not be able to see the respondent to read non-verbal communication.
Additional sources of bias in interview data
The main advantage of face-to-face or live interviews is that the researcher can adapt the questions as needed, clarify doubts and ensure that the answers are properly understood by repeating or reformulating the questions. A major disadvantage of the telephone interview is that the respondent can unilaterally terminate the interview without warning or explanation by hanging up.
Computer-assisted interviewing
Any discomfort, stress or problem experienced by the respondent can be detected by frowning, nervous tapping and other body language unconsciously displayed by her. The main advantage of telephone interviewing, from the researcher's point of view, is that a number of different people (if necessary, across the country or even internationally) can be reached in a relatively short period of time.
Group interviews
Someone from the research team can also observe what is happening through a one-way mirror, listen to verbal statements and notice the non-verbal signs of the members. This helps researchers gain valuable insights based on the snowball effects of discussions.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS
This is why the choice of method(s) will depend on the objective(s) of the study, research questions and research strategy. The advantages and disadvantages of interviews are discussed in the last part of this chapter.
Data collection methods: Observation
Observational methods are best suited for research that requires non-self-report descriptive data; that is, when behavior is to be investigated without directly asking the respondents themselves. However, observational methods are also time-consuming and challenging in many other ways, as you will learn in this chapter.
DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF OBSERVATION
FOUR KEY DIMENSIONS THAT CHARACTERIZE THE TYPE OF OBSERVATION
Controlled versus uncontrolled observational studies
Uncontrolled observation is an observation technique that makes no attempt to control, manipulate, or influence the situation. An advantage of unsupervised observation is that people can be observed in their natural shopping or work environment.
Participant versus nonparticipant observation
Events take their natural course and the researcher observes these events without interfering in the real environment. However, a major disadvantage of uncontrolled observation is that it is usually difficult to unravel the often complex situation since we do not control any factor in this.
Structured versus unstructured observational studies
Task-relevant behaviors of the actors, their perceived emotions, verbal and non-verbal communication and the like can also be recorded. At the beginning of a study, the observer may also not have a definitive idea of the specific aspects that require attention.
Concealed versus unconcealed observation
Observing events as they take place can also be part of the plan as in many other forms of exploratory and qualitative research. Unstructured observation can ultimately lead to a set of tentative hypotheses that are tested in subsequent research that is deductive in nature.
The Hawthorne studies
Usually questions that relate to the function of interest, such as the duration and frequency of an event (eg, how long does it take to get a meal at a fast food restaurant?), as well as certain activities that precede it for and follow it, will be recorded.
Concealed observation
Instead, the researcher must make a careful and judicious assessment of the potential harmful consequences of covert observational research. Frederichs and Ludtke (1975, p. 12) provide an elegant guide to such evaluation: the research plan "must be able to justify itself to members of the scientific community as well as to those involved in the study."
TWO IMPORTANT APPROACHES TO OBSERVATION
Note that there are no hard and fast rules for judging the ethicality of covert observation research.
Participant observation: introduction
The participatory aspect of participant observation
In fact, the role of the researcher is often that of a passive witness or spectator. With active participation, the researcher is not satisfied with the role of the spectator.
The observation aspect of participant observation
In moderate participation, the researcher occupies an intermediate position between being a complete insider (a complete participant) and being a complete outsider (as in non-participant observational studies). This enables the researcher not only to observe the subjects' everyday activities (workers, managers, consumers, brokers), but also to engage in these activities and thus put them into practice.
To what extent should I participate?
In this case, the researcher does not hide the fact that she is an observer, but explains that she has been an observer of the social group under study from the beginning. Numerous ethnographers have noticed that some members of the social group being studied are more open and more likely to approach the researcher early in the fieldwork than others (DeWalt & DeWalt, 2002).
On “deviants” and “professional stranger handlers”
In order to obtain permission to conduct a study, it is important to clearly explain the purpose of the research. If the purpose of the research is understood (and accepted), you will eventually be given permission to carry out your research project.
How do I establish rapport?
In most observational studies, gaining access begins with obtaining permission to conduct research from high-ranking people in the organization, preferably top management. An essential aspect of participant observation is establishing "relationship". Establishing rapport involves establishing a trusting relationship with the studied social group by showing respect, truthfulness and commitment to the well-being of the group or individual members of the group, so that they feel safe in sharing (sensitive) information with the researcher.
What to observe
What to observe in the focused and selective observation stages
What to observe in the descriptive observation stage
The quality of field notes depends largely on the level of detail and the accuracy of the description (Schensul, Schensul & LeCompte, 1999. How much is actually written down during the course of the day or the event depends on the quality of the memory of the researcher and the circumstances under which the researcher works (DeWalt & DeWalt, 2002.
Structured observation: introduction
Most researchers jot down words, phrases, or even entire sentences throughout the day or event, and write more extended notes during quieter times. To test one of the hypotheses of his study – GDA brands have a negative effect on the consumption of candy bars – he has placed two bowls filled with candy bars on this table.
The use of coding schemes in structured observation
Simple checklists and serial records are often very useful for the researcher conducting structured observations. In that case, the researcher also codes the start and finish of a particular activity or event.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
An important feature of participant observation is that the researcher collects data by participating in the daily life of the group or organization being studied. Another advantage of observation is that it makes it possible to observe certain groups of individuals from whom it would otherwise be difficult to obtain information.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
In Chapter 7 we have already explained that in business research three important data collection methods are interviewing, observing people and administering questionnaires.
Administering questionnaires
Questionnaires are generally less expensive and more time-consuming than interviews and observation, but also introduce a much greater chance of non-response and non-response errors. An overview of the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires (and other data collection methods) and a section on when to use each of these methods is later in this chapter.
Personally administered questionnaires
Mail questionnaires
Electronic and online questionnaires
The advantages and disadvantages of personally administered questionnaires, postal questionnaires and electronic questionnaires are presented in Table 9.1. Because questionnaires are commonly used, it is necessary to know how to design them effectively.
GUIDELINES FOR QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
The choice of using a questionnaire as a data collection method may be limited if the researcher needs to reach subjects with very little education. However, for most business research, once the variables for research have been identified and measures have been found or developed, the questionnaire is an appropriate data collection mechanism.
Principles of wording
This funnel approach, as it is called (Festinger & Katz, 1966), allows the respondent to progress easily and smoothly through the items in the questionnaire. Unless absolutely necessary, it is best not to ask for the respondent's name.
Principles of measurement
The order of the questions should make it easier for the answers to progress from start to finish. The personal data should be collected with due regard for the sensitivity of the respondents' feelings and with respect for privacy.
Section Two: About Work Life
A good introduction A proper introduction that clearly reveals the identity of the researcher and conveys the purpose of the research is absolutely necessary. Ensuring the confidentiality of the information they provide will allow for less biased responses.
Section One: About Yourself
- Your age 1 Under 20
- Your highest completed level of education
- Your gender 1 Female
- Your marital status 1 Married
- Number of preschool children (under 5 years of age)
- Age of the eldest child in your care (years)
- Number of years worked in the
- Number of other organizations worked for before joining this
- Present work shift
- Job status 1 Top management
Income Information and Other Sensitive Personal Data Although demographic information may be requested either at the beginning or at the end of the questionnaire, information of a very private and personal nature such as income, health status, etc., if considered at all. required for the survey, should be asked at the end of the questionnaire and not at the beginning. Postponing such questions until the end will help reduce respondent bias if the individual is concerned by the personal nature of the question.
Review of questionnaire design
Open-ended question at the end The questionnaire could contain an open-ended question at the end, allowing respondents to comment on any aspect of their choice. Closing the Questionnaire The questionnaire should end with a polite reminder to the respondent to check that all items have been completed, as shown in the example below.
Pretesting of structured questions
Electronic questionnaire and survey design
INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF SURVEYS
Software is also available to formulate subsequent questions based on the subject's response to the previous question. When data are collected through questionnaires and occasionally through interviews, one should be aware of the measurement instruments and how the data are collected, in addition to being sensitive to cultural differences in the use of certain terms.
Special issues in instrumentation for cross-cultural research
Issues in cross-cultural data collection
It is worth collaborating with a local researcher while developing and administering the research instrument, especially when the language and customs of the respondents are different from that of the researcher. REVIEW OF THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND WHEN TO USE EACH.
REVIEW OF THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND WHEN TO USE EACH
Electronic questionnaires are advantageous when answers to many questions must be obtained from a sample that is geographically dispersed, or it is difficult or impossible to conduct telephone interviews without much expense. The electronic questionnaire survey is most appropriate (and perhaps the only option open to the researcher) when information must be obtained on a significant scale through structured questions, at a reasonable cost, from a sample that is widely dispersed geographically.
MULTIMETHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
The Delphi Technique
As a sponsor of research, you will be able to decide at what level of sophistication you want data to be collected, based on the complexity and seriousness of the situation. As a constant (participant) observer of everything that goes on around you in the workplace, you will be able to understand the dynamics of the situation.
ETHICS IN DATA COLLECTION
As a manager, you may want to engage consultants to do research and may not collect data yourself through interviews, questionnaires or observation. As a manager, you will also be able to distinguish between good and bad questions used in surveys, with sensitivity to cultural variations, not only in scaling, but also in developing the entire survey instrument and in collecting data, as discussed in this chapter .
Ethics and the researcher
At least three issues are important to cross-cultural data collection—response equivalence, time of data collection, and status of the person collecting the data. It is necessary for the researcher to make explicit his assumptions, expectations and biases so that the manager can make informed decisions regarding the quality of the data.
Ethical behavior of respondents
How multiple data collection methods and from multiple sources relate to measurement reliability and validity. Some basic knowledge of the characteristics and strengths and weaknesses of primary data collection methods will help them evaluate alternative primary data collection approaches and/or understand why the consultant has chosen a particular method or combination of methods. .
General Questions
H1: There is a positive relationship between the service quality of the campus dining facilities and customer loyalty. We distinguished experimental from non-experimental approaches and explained that experimental designs are typically used in deductive research where the researcher is interested in establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
Cause-and-effect relationship after randomization
If such evidence is found, planned and systematic efforts can begin to gradually transfer those without M.Acc. It is then possible to see to what extent productivity is actually increased in the department because all the employees are MA.
THE LAB EXPERIMENT
We have already explained that to establish that a change in the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable: (1) the independent and the dependent variable must covary; (2) the independent variable must precede the dependent variable; (3) no other factor should be a possible cause of the change in the dependent variable; (4) a logical explanation is needed as to why the independent variable affects the dependent variable. If the first group performs extremely well, the second group poorly and the third group falls somewhere in the middle, there will be evidence to indicate that the M.Rek.
Control
Control and manipulation are best done in an artificial (laboratory) setting, where causal effects can be tested. When control and manipulation are introduced to establish cause-and-effect relationships in an artificial environment, we have laboratory experimental designs, also known as laboratory experiments.
Manipulation
This manipulation of the independent variable is also known as the treatment, and the results of the treatment are called treatment effects. Let's say that for the type of production work discussed earlier, the age, gender, and previous experience of employees are factors that affect the level of employee production.
Controlling the contaminating exogenous or “nuisance” variables
In other words, piece rates are the cause of the increase in the number of toys produced. Now we cannot say that the cause-and-effect relationship is confounded by other "nuisance" variables, because they were controlled for through the process of randomly assigning members to the groups.
Internal validity of lab experiments
In summary, compared to randomization, matching may be less effective because we may not know all the factors that could potentially contaminate the cause-and-effect relationship in a given situation, and therefore fail to identify some critical factors for all to match groups while conducting research. an experiment. Laboratory experiment designs thus involve control of the contaminating variables through the process of matching or randomization, and the manipulation of the treatment.
External validity or generalizability of lab experiments
Under such circumstances, we cannot be sure that the cause-and-effect relationship found in the laboratory experiment is necessarily likely to be true in the field setting. To test causal relationships in the organizational setting, field experiments are conducted.
THE FIELD EXPERIMENT
If, in a laboratory experimental design, groups are given the simple task of screwing nuts and bolts into a plastic frame, and the results show that groups paid piece rates were more productive than those paid hourly rates , to what extent can we then say that this would be true of the sophisticated nature of the work done in organizations. Tasks in organizational settings are much more complex and there may be some confounding variables that cannot be controlled - for example, experience.
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTS
Trade-off between internal and external validity
However, gender differences and other factors found in laboratory settings are often not found in field studies (Osborn & Vicars, 1976). These problems of external validity generally limit the use of laboratory experiments in management.
Factors affecting the validity of experiments
