One of the main advantages of observation is its directness. Whereas interviews and questionnaires elicit verbal responses about actions and behavior from the subjects (which merely allows behavior to be inferred from these verbal responses), observation allows the researcher to gather behavioral data without asking questions. People can be observed in their natural work environment or in the lab setting, and their activities and behaviors or other items of interest can be noted, recorded, analyzed, and interpreted.
(a) Simple checklist
Event 1 2 3 4
//// // / ///
(b) Sequence record
Event 1 4 2 4 1 1 3 1 4 2 1
(c) Sequence record on timescale
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
4 2 4
1 1 1 3 1 4 2 1
F I G U R E 8 . 1
Alternative ways of coding events
Apart from the activities performed by the individuals under study, their movements, work habits, the statements made and meetings conducted by them, other – environmental – factors such as layout, work‐flow patterns, the closeness of the seating arrangement, and the like, can also be noted. In observational studies, it is also relatively easy to discern situational factors such as the weather (hot, cold, rainy), the day of the week ( midweek as opposed to Monday or Friday), and other factors that might have a bearing on, for example, pro- ductivity, the sales of a product, traffic patterns, absenteeism, and the like. These factors can be recorded and meaningful patterns might emerge from this type of data. However, note that it is often very difficult to estab- lish the specific effects of situational factors on behavior and actions of the subjects under study. As we explained earlier in this chapter, it is often difficult to untangle the often complex situation. Accordingly, it is sometimes very difficult to establish cause‐and‐effect relationships between situational factors and events, actions, and behavior.
Another advantage of observation is that is possible to observe certain groups of individuals – for exam- ple, very young children and extremely busy executives – from whom it may be otherwise difficult to obtain information. Children can be observed as to their interests and attention span with various stimuli, such as their involvement with different toys. Such observation would help toy manufacturers, child educators, day‐
care administrators, and others deeply involved in or responsible for children’s development, to design and model ideas based on children’s interests, which are more easily observed than traced in any other manner.
The data obtained through observation of events as they normally occur are generally more reliable and free from respondent bias.
Observation is not without challenges and difficulties. The following drawbacks of observational studies have to be noted. Reactivity (the extent to which the observer affects the situation under study) could be a major threat to the validity of the results of observational studies, because those who are observed may behave differ- ently during the period of the study. Observational research may be particularly vulnerable to reactivity if the observations are confined to a short period of time. In studies of longer duration, the subjects under study will become more relaxed as the study progresses and tend to behave normally, as illustrated in the following passage, provided by Malinowski, who carried out ethnographic field work in Omarkana Trobriand Islands:
It must be remembered that the natives saw me constantly every day, they ceased to be interested or alarmed, or made self‐conscious by my presence, and I ceased to be a disturbing element in the tribal life which I was to study, altering it by my very approach, as always happens to a newcomer to every savage community. In fact, as they knew that I would thrust my nose into everything, even where a well‐mannered native would not dream of intruding, they finished by regarding me as a part and parcel of their life, a necessary evil or nuisance, mitigated by donations of tobacco.
Malinowski, 1992, pp. 7–8 Researchers doing observational studies often discount the data recorded in the first few days, especially if they seem to be (very) different from what is observed later.
Data observed from the researcher’s point of view are likely to be prone to observer biases. For instance, a possible problem in participant observation is that the research perspective fades or even disappears completely because the role that the researcher has adopted in the group has taken over: the researcher has “gone native.”
This may lead to deficient, flawed, and biased accounts; there could be recording errors and errors in interpreting activities, behaviors, events, and nonverbal cues.
Observation of the happenings day in and day out, over extended periods of time, could also afflict the observer with ennui and could also introduce biases in the recording of the observations.
To minimize observer bias, observers are usually given training on how to observe and what to record. Good observational studies would also establish interobserver reliability. This could also be established during the
training of the observers, when videotaped stimuli could be used to determine interobserver reliability. A simple formula can be used for the purpose – dividing the number of agreements among the trainees by the number of agreements and disagreements – thus establishing the reliability coefficient.
Observation is an obvious and appropriate technique to study actions and behavior. Though moods, feel- ings, and attitudes can be guessed by observing facial expressions and other nonverbal behaviors, the cognitive thought processes of individuals cannot be captured. In other words, it is very difficult to identify reasons behind behavior of the subjects under study. Observation is therefore often used as a technique to collect data that com- plement data obtained by other techniques such as interviews.
A practical problem of observation is that it is time consuming. Many forms of observation require the observer to be physically present, often for prolonged periods of time. For instance, participant observation entails the immersion of the researcher into the social group that is under study for many months and often even years. For this reason, this method of collecting data is not only slow, but also tedious and expensive.
In the following chapter, we turn to another method of collecting data: namely, questionnaires.
SUMMARY
● Learning objective 1: Define observation and discuss how observation may help to solve business problems.
Actions and behavior of people may play an important role in business research. A useful and natural tech- nique to collect data on actions and behavior is observation. Observation concerns the planned watching, recording, analysis, and interpretation of behavior, actions, or events.
● Learning objective 2: Demonstrate the ability to make an informed decision on an appropriate type of observational method for a specific study.
Various approaches of observation may be distinguished by four key dimensions that characterize the way observation is conducted: (1) control; (2) whether the observer is a member of the group that is observed or not; (3) structure; and (4) concealment of observation.
● Learning objective 3: Explain the issues related to participant observation and structured observation.
Two important, distinct approaches to observation are participant observation and structured observation.
A key characteristic of participant observation is that the researcher gathers data by participating in the daily life of the group or organization under study. Participant observation requires many skills, such as com- mitment, the ability to fit in, tact, the ability to communicate with different members of the social group at their level, patience, the ability to observe, the ability to separate the role of participant from that of observer, and so on. Structured observation is focused in nature, as it looks selectively at predetermined phenomena.
The focus of structured observation is fragmented into small and manageable pieces of information. The development of a coding scheme is a crucial aspect of structured observation. Coding schemes contain predetermined categories for recording what is observed.
● Learning objective 4: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of observation.
One of the main advantages of observation is its directness. Another advantage of observation is that it is possible to observe certain groups of individuals from whom it may otherwise be difficult to obtain information. Drawbacks of observational studies are reactivity, observer bias, and that it is time consuming, tedious and expensive.
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Describe the key purpose of observation.
2. Discuss four dimensions that distinguish various approaches to observation.
3. Under which circumstances would you prefer observation as a method to collect data over other methods of data collection such as interviews and questionnaires?
4. How does participant observation differ from structured observation?
5. Discuss how ethnography and participant observation are related.
6. How does moderate participation differ from complete participation?
7. Although participant observation combines the processes of participation and observation it should be distinguished from both pure observation and pure participation. Explain.
8. What is rapport and how is rapport established in participant observation?
9. Field notes are often regarded as being simultaneously data and data analysis. Why?
10. Is it possible to test hypotheses with structured observation? Why (not)?
11. How does a simple checklist differ from a sequence record on time‐scale?
12. “One of the main advantages of observation is its directness.” Discuss.
13. What is reactivity?
14. A disadvantage of observation is observer bias. Discuss at least two ways of minimizing observer bias.
15. Discuss the ethics of concealed observation.
Now do Exercises 8.1, 8.2, and 8.3.
EXERCISE 8.1
You are investigating the service quality of restaurants. You are collecting primary data through inter- views and observation. Your task is to go to a restaurant and collect descriptive observational data on the following factors: space (layout of the physical setting), objects (physical elements such as equip- ment, tables, chairs, and the like), actors (staff and clients), and interactions between staff members and clients.
EXERCISE 8.3
Read all relevant information regarding Thomas Perks’ study. From this information, develop a coding scheme to test the effect of GDA labels1 on the consumption of candy bars (chocolate bars). Do not forget to include categories allowing you to collect data on relevant covariates.
1 GDA labels show the number of calories and grams of sugars, fat, saturates (saturated fats), and salt per portion of food, and expresses these quantities as a percentage of your “Guideline Daily Amount.”
EXERCISE 8.2
Seek permission from a professor to sit in two sessions of his or her class, and do an unstructured, nonparticipant‐observer study. Give your conclusions on the data, and include in the short report your observation sheets and tabulations.
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INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 7, we have already explained that in business research, three important data collection methods are interviewing, observing people, and administering questionnaires. We have discussed interviewing in Chapter 7 and observation in Chapter 8. In this chapter, we will discuss questionnaires and questionnaire design.
A questionnaire is a preformulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives.