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REVIEWING THE CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS ON DEMOCRATIC ELECTION PRACTICES IN INDONESIA AND THE PHILIPPINES
Janvencius Valerius Nifowa’azaro Dachi*, Rina Shahriyani Shahrullah**, Elza Syarief***
Magister Hukum, Fakultas Hukum Universitas Internasional Batam Jalan Gajah Mada, Baloi-Sei Ladi, Kota Batam, Kepulauan Riau, 29426, Indonesia
submitted July 2022 – reviewed November 2022 – accepted June 2023
*Correspondence e-mail: [email protected]
**Correspondence e-mail: [email protected]
***Correspondence e-mail: [email protected]
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See also, Dietmar von der Pfordten, On the Foundations of the Rule of Law and the Principle of the Legal State/Rechtsstaat in James R. Silkenat, et.al., 2014, The Legal Doctrines of the Rule of Law and the Legal State (Rechtsstaat), Springer International Publishing, Cham, p. 15-28.
3
8 Sudargo Gautama, 1983, Pengertian tentang Negara Hukum, Alumni, Bandung, p. 21. See also, Wirjono Prodjodikoro, 1989, Asas-Asas Hukum Tata Negara di Indonesia, Dian Rakyat, Jakarta, p. 2.
9 Jimly Asshiddiqie, 2010, Konstitusi dan Konstitusionalisme Indonesia, Sinar Grafika, Jakarta, p. 123-134. See also, Politieacademie, "Democratische Rechtsstaat", https://thesaurus.politieacademie.nl/Thesaurus/Term/4391, accessed 26 October 2022.
10 Ramlan Surbakti, et.al., 2008, Perekayasaan Sistem Pemilu untuk Pembangunan Tata Politik Demokratis, Kemitraan, Jakarta, p. 9-10.
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12 Morton H. Halperin, et.al., 2005, The Democracy Advantage: How Democracies Promote Prosperity and Peace, Routledge, New York, p. 33.
13 Robert Alan Dahl, 1989, Democracy and Its Critics, Yale University Press, New Haven, p. 51.
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14 André Blais, 2000, To Vote or Not to Vote?: The Merits and Limits of Rational Choice Theory, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, p. 113. See also, G. Bingham Powell, Conclusion: Why Elections Matter in Lawrence LeDuc, et.al., 2014, Comparing Democracies 4: Elections and Voting in a Changing World, Sage Publications, Los Angeles, p. 203-204.
15 Jeane J. Kirkpatrick, "Democratic Elections and Democratic Government", World Affairs, Vol. 147, No. 2, 1984, p. 63.
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18 Avery Poole, "Breaking New and Controversial Ground?: Democracy in ASEAN", Democratic Theory, Vol.
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20 Badan Pusat Statistik, 2021, Statistik Politik 2021, Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, p. 90.
21 Komisi Nasional Hak Asasi Manusia Republik Indonesia, 2019, Pemilu 2019: Pemenuhan Hak Konstitusional Warga Negara, Komisi Nasional Hak Asasi Manusia Republik Indonesia, Jakarta, p. 22.
22 Syamsuddin Haris, Sistem Pemilu Serentak 2019: Evaluasi dan Refleksi in Eko Agus Wibisono, 2019, Perihal Refleksi Pemilu Serentak 2019, Badan Pengawas Pemilihan Umum, Jakarta, p. 152.
23 Nathan Allen, Electoral Systems in Context: Indonesia in Erik S. Herron, et.al., 2018, The Oxford Handbook of Electoral Systems, Oxford University Press, New York, p. 932.
24 Amy L. Freedman, The State of Democracy in Asia in Shiping Hua, 2018, Routledge Handbook of Politics in Asia, Routledge, London, p. 434. See also, Asian Barometer Survey, "Data Release - 5th Wave", https://asianbarometer.org/data?page=d10, accessed 11 October 2022.
25 Anthony Lawrence Borja, et.al., 2022, The 2022 Philippine Elections Primer: A Democratic Citizenship Perspective, The East Asia Institute, Seoul, p. 3.
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27 International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA), 2022, The Global State of Democracy 2022: Forging Social Contracts in a Time of Discontent, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA), Stockholm, p. 18.
28 The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2022, Democracy Index 2021: The China Challenge, The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited, London, p. 34.
29 Scot Schraufnagel, et.al., "Voter Turnout in Democratizing Southeast Asia", Taiwan Journal of Democracy, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2014, p. 1-22.
30 Takeshi Kawanaka, "The Stakes of Politics and Electoral Administration: A Comparative Study of Southeast Asian Democracies", IDE Discussion Paper, Vol. 536, 2015, p. 1-26.
31 Geoffrey Samuel, 2014, An Introduction to Comparative Law Theory and Method, Bloomsbury Publishing, Oxford, p. 65-78.
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32 Ishaq, 2017, Metode Penelitian Hukum dan Penulisan Skripsi, Tesis, serta Disertasi, Alfabeta, Bandung, p. 66- 70.
33 Hans Kelsen, 1949, General Theory of Law and State, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, p. 284.
34 David Beetham, et.al., 2009, Introducing Democracy: 80 Questions and Answers, 2nd Edition, UNESCO Publishing, Paris, p. 18-20.
9
35 Jimly Asshiddiqie, 2005, Hukum Tata Negara dan Pilar-Pilar Demokrasi: Serpihan Pemikiran Hukum, Media, dan HAM, Konstitusi Press, Jakarta, p. 241.
36 Salim, et.al., 2017, Penerapan Teori Hukum pada Penelitian Disertasi dan Tesis, Rajawali Pers, Depok, p. 175.
37 Tom Christiano, et.al., "Democracy", https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democracy, accessed 07 August 2022.
38 David Altman, 2019, Citizenship and Contemporary Direct Democracy, First Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 6-288.
39 Salim, et.al., Op.Cit., p. 176. See also, Frederick G. Whelan, 2019, Democracy in Theory and Practice, Routledge, New York, p. 218.
10
40 Ramlan Surbakti, et al., Loc.Cit.
41 Joseph A. Schumpeter, 2003, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy, Routledge, London, p. 269.
42 Maria Paula Saffon, et al., "Procedural Democracy, the Bulwark of Equal Liberty", Political Theory, Vol. 41, No. 3, 2013, p. 441-481.
43 Samuel P. Huntington, "Democracy’s Third Wave", Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1991, p. 12-34.
44 Jason Brennan, et.al., 2014, Compulsory Voting: For and Against, First Edition, Cambridge University Press, New York, p. 127.
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45 Robert Alan Dahl, Op.Cit., p. 141–142. See also, Fabienne Peter, 2008, Democratic Legitimacy, Routledge, New York, p. 7-30.
46 André Bächtiger, et.al., Deliberative Democracy: An Introduction in André Bächtiger, et.al., 2018, The Oxford Handbook of Deliberative Democracy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 1-32.
47 Nicole Curato, et.al., "Twelve Key Findings in Deliberative Democracy Research", Daedalus, Vol. 146, No. 3, 2017, p. 28-38.
48 Jon Elster, Deliberation and Constitution Making in Jon Elster, 1998, Deliberative Democracy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 97-122. See also, Amy Gutmann, 2004, Why Deliberative Democracy?, Princeton University Press, Princeton, p. 133-138.
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49 Aidan Ricketts, 2012, The Activists’ Handbook: A Step-by-Step to Participatory Democracy, Zed Books, London, p. 114–115.
50 Benjamin R. Barber, 2004, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age, University of California Press, Berkeley, p. 150-155.
51 Marc Hooghe, Citizenship and Participation in Lawrence LeDuc, et.al., 2014, Comparing Democracies 4:
Elections and Voting in a Changing World, Sage Publications, Los Angeles, p. 58.
52 Benjamin R. Barber, Op.Cit., p. 117-118.
53 Sidney Verba, et.al., 1995, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, p. 37. See also, Marc Hooghe, Op.Cit., p. 60.
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54 Kathe Callahan, "Citizen Participation: Models and Methods", International Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 30, No. 11, 2007, p. 1186.
55 Marc Hooghe, Op.Cit., p. 73-74.
56 Jeane J. Kirkpatrick, Loc.Cit., p. 63.
57 Asian Electoral Stakeholder Forum, "Indicators of Democratic Elections", http://aesf.anfrel.org/wp- content/uploads/2019/01/2015-Dili-Indicators-of-Democratic-Elections.pdf, accessed 11 October 2022.
58 Marc Hooghe, Op.Cit., p. 118.
59 Waldemar Wojtasik, "Functions of Elections in Democratic Systems", Political Preferences, No. 4, 2013, p.
36.
14
15
60 Mahkamah Konstitusi Republik Indonesia, "Pemilu Secara Serentak Bertujuan Menguatkan Sistem Presidensial
| Mahkamah Konstitusi Republik Indonesia, https://www.mkri.id/index.php?page=web.Berita&id=18772, accessed 04 November 2022.
61 Evi Novida Ginting Manik, Penguatan Kelembagaan Menuju KPU yang Lebih Profesional in Aditya Perdana, 2019, Perihal Para Penyelenggara Pemilu, Badan Pengawas Pemilihan Umum, Jakarta, p. 46.
16
17
62 Komisi Pemilihan Umum Republik Indonesia, "Pemilu 1999", https://www.kpu.go.id/page/read/11/pemilu- 1999, accessed 23 October 2022. See also, Tatang Sudrajat, "Analis Komparatif Pengaturan Dimensi Organisasi Komisi Pemilihan Umum sebagai Penyelenggara Pemilu di Era Pemerintahan Pasca Orde Baru", Jurnal Ilmu Administrasi, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2017, p. 51-68. See also, Helena Catt, et.al., 2014, Electoral Management Design, Revised Edition, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, Stockholm, p. 6-10.
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63 Aditya Perdana, et.al., 2019, Tata Kelola Pemilu di Indonesia, Komisi Pemilihan Umum Republik Indonesia, Jakarta, p. 119.
64 Komisi Pemilihan Umum Republik Indonesia, "Pemilu 2004", https://www.kpu.go.id/page/read/1114/pemilu- 2004, accessed 24 October 2022.
65 Heru Cahyono, "Pelanggaran Pemilu Legislatif 2004", Jurnal Penelitian Politik, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2004, p. 9-27.
66 Aditya Perdana, et al., Loc.Cit.
19
67 Komisi Pemilihan Umum Republik Indonesia, "Pemilu 2009", https://www.kpu.go.id/page/read/1115/pemilu- 2009, accessed 25 October 2022.
68 Komisi Pemilihan Umum Republik Indonesia, "Pemilu 2014", https://www.kpu.go.id/page/read/1116/pemilu- 2014, accessed 25 October 2022. See also, Komisi Pemilihan Umum Republik Indonesia, "Pemilu 2019", https://www.kpu.go.id/page/read/1113/pemilu-2019, accessed 25 October 2022. See also, Dewan Kehormatan Penyelenggara Pemilihan Umum Republik Indonesia, "Sejarah DKPP", https://dkpp.go.id/sejarah-dkpp/, accessed 25 October 2022.
69 Aditya Perdana, et.al., Op.Cit., p. 179.
20
70 Ibid, p. 180.
71 Syarifuddin Jurdi, 2019, Komisi Pemilihan Umum (KPU) dan Penguatan Institusi: Dari Kooptasi Rejim, Kemandirian, dan Penguatan Etik Penyelenggara, Komisi Pemilihan Umum Republik Indonesia, p. 11-12.
72 S. Dian Andryanto, "23 Tahun Reformasi: Rangkaian Peristiwa Mei 1998 Berujung Soeharto Lengser", https://nasional.tempo.co/read/1461830/23-tahun-reformasi-rangkaian-peristiwa-mei-1998-berujung-soeharto- lengser, accessed 28 October 2022.
General Elections Commission
(Executor)
Election Supervisory Board (Supervisor) Electoral Organizer Honorary
Council
(Enforcer of the Code of Ethics)
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73 Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie, 2006, Detik-Detik yang Menentukan: Jalan Panjang Indonesia Menuju Demokrasi, THC Mandiri, Jakarta, p. 171.
74 Komisi Pemilihan Umum Republik Indonesia, Loc.Cit.
75 Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie, Op.Cit., p. 172-175.
76 Aditya Perdana, et.al., Op.Cit., p. 80-81.
22
77 Indra Pahlevi, "Dinamika Sistem Pemilu Masa Transisi di Indonesia", Politica, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2014, p. 111-135.
78 Aditya Perdana, et.al., Loc.Cit., p. 79.
79 Ibid, p. 15.
80 Ibid, p. 79.
23
81 Rizal Sukma, Indonesia’s 2009 Elections: Defective System, Resilient Democracy in Edward Aspinall, et.al., 2010, Problems of Democratisation in Indonesia: Elections, Institutions, and Society, ISEAS Publishing, Singapore, p. 53-74.
82 Abdul Aziz, Refleksi Pemilu Serentak 2019: Aspek Kelembagaan Penyelenggara Pemilu in Eko Agus Wibisono, 2019, Perihal Refleksi Pemilu Serentak 2019, Badan Pengawas Pemilihan Umum, Jakarta, p. 94. See also, Adam Schmidt, Indonesia’s 2009 Elections: Performance Challenges and Negative Precedents in Edward Aspinall, et.al., 2010, Problems of Democratisation in Indonesia: Elections, Institutions, and Society, ISEAS Publishing, Singapore, p.108.
83 Ibid, p. 110-119.
84 Arfianto Purbolaksono, "Catatan Penyelenggaraan Pemilu Legislatif 2014", Update Indonesia, May 2014, Vol. 8, No. 10, p. 2-5. See also, Ulla Fionna, Vote-buying in Indonesia’s 2014 Elections: The Other Side of the Coin in Ulla Fionna, 2015, Watching the Indonesian Elections 2014, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, p. 94-102.
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85 R. Siti Zuhro, "Demokrasi dan Pemilu Presiden 2019", Jurnal Penelitian Politik, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2019, p. 69- 81.
86 Ricky Febriansyah, et.al., "Analisis Beban Kerja Kelompok Penyelenggara Pemungutan Suara (KPPS) Menggunakan Metode FTE (Full Time Equivalent) pada Pemilihan Umum Serentak Tahun 2019 di Kabupaten Bangka Tengah", Jurnal Tata Kelola Pemilu Indonesia, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2019, p. 42-60. See also, Syamsuddin Haris, Loc.Cit. See also, Moch Nurhasim, "Evaluasi Pemilu Serentak 2019: Distorsi Asumsi Akademik dan Praktik", Jurnal Majelis, Vol. 7, 2019, p. 61-80.
87 Quinton Temby, "Disinformation, Violence, and Anti-Chinese Sentiment in Indonesia’s 2019 Elections", ISEAS Perspective, Vol. 67, 2019, p. 1-8. See also, Burhanuddin Muhtadi, Electoral Losers, Democratic Support, and Authoritarian Nostalgia in Thomas Power, et.al., 2020, Democracy in Indonesia: From Stagnation to Regression?, ISEAS Publishing, Singapore, p. 141-165.
88 Viberto Selochan, The Military and the Fragile Democracy of the Philippines in Ronald James May, et al., 2004, The Military and Democracy in Asia and the Pacific, Second ed. ANU E Press, Canberra, p. 59-60.
25
89 Noam Chomsky, 1991, Deterring Democracy, South End Press, London, p. 237.
90 Walter C. Ladwig, When the Police are the Problem: The Philippine Constabulary and the Hukbalahap Rebellion in C. Christine Fair, et al., 2014, Policing Insurgencies: Cops as Counterinsurgents, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 19-45.
91 James R. Prescott, "Ramón Magsaysay—the Myth and the Man", The Journal of American-East Asian Relations, Vol. 23, No. 1, 2016, p. 7-32.
26
92 Senate Electoral Tribunal of Republic of the Philippines, "Election Laws | Senate Electoral Tribunal, https://www.set.gov.ph/resources/election-law/, accessed 12 December 2022.
93 Helena Catt, et.al., Loc.Cit.
27
94 Jean Arboleda, et.al., 2015, Philippine Electoral Almanac: Revised and Expanded Edition, Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office, San Miguel, Manila, p. 61.
95 COMELEC Information Technology Department, "Historical Background", https://comelec.gov.ph/?r=AboutCOMELEC/HistoricalBackground, accessed 15 December 2022.
28
96 The Law Dictionary, "PLEBISCITE Definition & Meaning - Black’s Law Dictionary", https://thelawdictionary.org/plebiscite/, accessed 24 October 2022.
29
97 Jean Arboleda, et.al., Op.Cit. p. 53.
98 Ibid, p. 115-135.
99 William H. Overholt, "The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand Marcos", Asian Survey, Vol. 26, No. 11, 1986, p. 1137- 1163.
100 Julio Cabral Teehankee, Electoral Politics in the Philippines in Aurel Croissant, et.al., 2002, Electoral Politics in Southeast and East Asia, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Singapore, p. 159.
101 Jean Arboleda, et.al., Op.Cit., p. 113. See also David G Timberman, 2015, A Changeless Land: Continuity and Change in Philippine Politics, Routledge, New York, p. 76.
102 Jean Arboleda, et.al., Op.Cit., p. 115.
103 David Wurfel, 1988, Filipino Politics: Development and Decay, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, p. 116.
104 Jean Arboleda, et.al., Loc.Cit.
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105 Gene Segarra Navera, "Metaphorizing Martial Law: Constitutional Authoritarianism in Marcos’s Rhetoric (1972–1985)", Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints, Vol. 66, No. 4, 2018, p. 417-452.
106 Jean Arboleda, et.al., Loc.Cit.
107 Viberto Selochan, Op.Cit., p. 67.
108 David G. Timberman, Op.Cit., p. 158. See also James Marshall Kirby, Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction with Political Leaders in Indonesia, Korea, the Philippines, and Thailand in Giovanna Maria Dora Dore, et.al., 2014, Incomplete Democracies in the Asia-Pacific: Evidence from Indonesia, Korea, The Philippines, and Thailand, Palgrave Macmillan UK, London, p. 220-255.
31
109 David G. Timberman, Op.Cit., p. 200-244. See also Aries A. Arugay, Fall from Grace, Descent from Power?:
Civil Society after Philippine Democracy’s Lost Decade in Imelda Deinla, et.al., 2019, From Aquino II to Duterte (2010-2018): Change, Continuity, and Rupture, ISEAS Publishing, Singapore, p. 285-307.
110 Karl D. Jackson, The Philippines: Who Votes, Who Participates, and Why? in Giovanna Maria Dora Dore, et.al., 2014, Incomplete Democracies in the Asia-Pacific: Evidence from Indonesia, Korea, The Philippines, and Thailand, Palgrave Macmillan UK, London, p. 186-219.
111 Jean Arboleda, et.al., Op.Cit., p. 140-144.
112 Mark R. Thompson, Op.Cit., p. 47.
113 James Putzel, "Democratization and Clan Politics: The 1992 Philippine Elections", South East Asia Research, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1995, p. 18-45.
32
114 Senate Electoral Tribunal of Republic of the Philippines, "Republic Act No. 7166 | Senate Electoral Tribunal", https://www.set.gov.ph/resources/election-law/republic-act-no-7166/, accessed 05 October 2023.
115 James Putzel, Loc.Cit.
116 Senate Electoral Tribunal of Republic of the Philippines, "Republic Act No. 8046 | Senate Electoral Tribunal", https://www.set.gov.ph/resources/election-law/republic-act-no-8046/, accessed 05 November 2023. See also Badrudin K. Abdul, "The Political Leadership of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao: Its Socio- Economic Imperatives and Challenges", Proceedings of the International Conference on Responsive Education
& Socio-Economic Transformation (ICRESET) 2018, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2018, p. 86-97.
117 Jean Arboleda, et,al., Op.Cit., p. 147-149.
118 Ibid, p. 153-155. See also Julio Cabral Teehankee, "Weak State, Strong Presidents: Situating the Duterte Presidency in Philippine Political Time", Journal of Developing Societies, Vol. 32, No. 3, 2016, p. 293-321.
33
119 Jean Arboleda, et.al., Op.Cit., p. 159-161.
120 National Citizens’ Movement for Free Elections, 2010, Namfrel’s 2010 Presidential & National Election Report, National Citizens’ Movement for Free Elections, Mandaluyong, Philippines, p. 1-7. See also Masataka Kimura, "Information and Communication Technology and Election Administration in the Philippines: An Assessment of the Nationwide Automation of the 2010 and 2013 Synchronized Elections", Philippine Political Science Journal, Vol. 36, No. 1, 2015, p. 54-72.
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121 National Citizens’ Movement for Free Elections, 2016, Namfrel Assessment of the May 9, 2016 Elections, National Citizens’ Movement for Free Elections, Mandaluyong, Philippines, p. 1. See also The Carter Center, 2016, Limited Election Observation Mission to the Philippines: June 2016 Statement, The Carter Center, Philippines, p. 4. See also Karol Ilagan, et.al., Covering Campaign Finance: The Philippine Experience in Ratna Ariyanti, et al., 2021, Media Reporting of Elections in Asia: Issues, Challenges, and Lessons, The Asian Network for Free Elections, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 168-169.
122 Dean Dulay, et.al., "Continuity, History, and Identity: Why Bongbong Marcos Won the 2022 Philippine Presidential Election", Pacific Affairs, Vol. 96, No. 1, 2023, p. 85-104.
123 COMELEC Information Technology Department, "2022 National and Local Elections Statistics", https://comelec.gov.ph/?r=2022NLE/Statistics, accessed 22 December 2022.
124 National Citizens’ Movement for Free Elections, 2022, NAMFREL 2022 National and Local Elections Report, National Citizens’ Movement for Free Elections, Philippines, p. 31-32.
125 Sara Naseem, et.al., 2022, 2022 Philippine National and Local Elections: A Vibrant Democracy amid Systemic Challenges, The Asian Network for Free Elections, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 51.
35
126 Ibid, p. 30-34. See also International Coalition for Human Rights in the Philippines, 2022, Final Report of the Philippine Elections 2022, International Coalition for Human Rights in the Philippines, Philippines, p. 18-21. See also National Citizens’ Movement for Free Elections, Op.Cit., p. 69-70, 72.
127 Avery D. H. Poole, 2019, Democracy, Rights and Rhetoric in Southeast Asia, Springer International Publishing, Cham, p. 23.
128 David Wurfel, Op.Cit., p. 114-122.
129 Hermawan Sulistyo, Electoral Politics in Indonesia: A Hard Way to Democracy in Aurel Croissant, et al., 2002, Electoral Politics in Southeast and East Asia, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Singapore, p. 88. See also Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie, Op.Cit., p. 170-171.
130 Andrew Reynolds, et.al., 2016, Desain Sistem Pemilu: Buku Panduan Baru International IDEA, Perkumpulan untuk Pemilu dan Demokrasi, Jakarta, p. 144-146.
36
131 Komisi Pemilihan Umum Republik Indonesia, Loc.Cit.
37
132 Aditya Perdana, et.al., Op.Cit., p. 259-273.
38
133 Ibid, p. 75-76.
