However, it is true that Dr. Arctowski strengthens his data by using only cases where there is a regular approach and recession that are associated lows and highs of the solar constant. One sees this while being certain of the importance of the meteorological effects of solar variation.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 3
TEMPERATURE CHANGES
However, the analogy of the 6^- or 7-day periodicity to that of the mean duration of the maxima and minima characteristic of the solar constant is evidently only coincidental. At Kew Observatory, near London, the maximum temperature occurs one day later than the average maximum of constant values.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE — ARCTOWSKI
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE WAVES
Clayton and the author acknowledged that day-to-day variations in solar radiation are a major factor in climate change. The author's first research on the "solar constant and variations of atmospheric temperature at Arequipa and some other stations" was published in 1912 (Bull.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 9
The reception of pressure waves on the earth's surface, coming simultaneously from different points of origin, possibly from the centers of lower and higher temperatures for example, makes it extremely difficult to search for a direct connection with solar phenomena. World-wide simultaneity of such changes in pressure wavelengths cannot be expected, unless perhaps it were possible to consider centers of origin exclusively.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI II of the waves should differ from time to time, just as it does in the
This diagram shows the rhythm of transport of air masses during flight from one hemisphere to the other and back. And in the case of the Antarctic continent from south to north both in summer and.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 13
Detailed maps of pressure and temperature changes observed in Europe, North Africa, Siberia and India from today in January 1910 show that crossings are the rule. This fact shows that the changes observed at the Earth's surface are occasionally, if not always, part of changes that occur above an altitude of 4,000 meters.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 1
THE AMERICAN RADIOMETEOROGRAPH OBSERVATIONS
The maximum of the nth must be observed in the temperature data of the 12th. In Nashville, Tennessee, the maximum was observed on the 12th at an altitude of 10 to 11 mi (16 to 18 km), while it was delayed by one day. In Phoenix, Arizona, there was a somewhat pronounced maximum on the 12th from 5 to 14 km, but the numbers were perfectly characteristic at 18 and 19 km.
THE EQUATORIAL TROPOSPHERE
A comparison of the temperature curves for Batavia, especially for the months of March-April and September-October, leads to another question which should be answered.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 19
STRATOSPHERE AND PSEUDO-STRATOSPHERE
Summarizing the results of his research on the thermal structure of the stratosphere up to 30 km, Jaumotte^ recognized 18 km. and in some cases even 25 km.) as the basic level of the real stratosphere. The tropopauses of both can coexist, and this fact leads to the important conclusion that some prevailing theoretical views of general atmospheric circulations need to be radically modified. In particular, the equator-to-pole cross section, which shows the distribution of temperatures in the upper air and the general poleward descent of the tropopause, should be converted to a dovetail diameter.
They correspond to the height of the tropopause at Miami, and to a change in the lapse rates at the height of 13 km.
THE REVERSAL OF SEASONS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE
5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 23 The curves for the annual variations for the surface and for.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 23 The curves of the annual variations for the surface and for the
These temperatures are merely inferior to those found in tropical Africa at the same altitude, where, above the Victoria Nyanza, Berson found a temperature of -7o°4, while above Batavia. The lower temperatures above the Equator are exactly what should be expected if we believe that the upper San Diego inversion corresponds to the equatorial inversion, the altitude here being about 3000 m. Of this upper inversion, and the existence of a lower inversion during the months of March, April, and May at San Diego, the preceding diagram (fig. 12) of the mean monthly temperatures, observed above 8 km., will help to explain the minimum ones for July and August.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 2$
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE — ARCTOWSKI 27
THE TWO INVERSIONS
Comparing all available data for February 1940, we find that the lower inversion, properly speaking, does not end south of Oakland or south of the 36th parallel. South of the 36th parallel, the lower inversion properly does not exist, although all the curves show a bend corresponding to the inversion: between 11 and 12 km. The following charts (Fig. 15) of lapse rates for May 1940 are good examples showing the gradual disappearance of the lower inversions going south from the Canadian border to the Gulf of Mexico.
Finally, in the lower troposphere one should perhaps also recognize the individuality of an active bottom zone, of the most frequent inversions.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI
THE SUBSTRATOSPHERE
Picking turns for Billings, Mont. Fig. 17), shows that in September 1939 there was no lower, middle stratosphere. the height of the tropopause is between 16 and 17 km. During the months of January-July 1940, there was a gradual increase in the altitude of the lower troposphere, from 10 to 13 km., the July curve shows a rise in temperature to 15 km. and the upper tropopause at 17 km. or slightly above that height. Fig. 18), are particularly interesting.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 33
If we still have a higher tropopause at Buffalo, at an altitude of 17 km, and perhaps also at Sault Ste. The upper inversion is therefore undoubtedly related to the temperature conditions of the tropical regions, while the lower inversion belongs to the Arctic regions. Under the lower inversion, these figures show a decrease in temperature with an increase in latitude.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE — ARCTOWSKI 35
TROPOSPHERIC LAPSE RATES
The monthly averages are apparently influenced by the frequent inversions that occur in the lower troposphere. The differences of the average temperatures between the earth's surface and a height of 6 km.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 37
I NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 39
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
For the years 1910-1919 in particular, using Reseau Mondial's monthly tools, Tesla traced departure maps from annual rates, overlapping 12-month averages and monthly departure maps for individual years." In this research, departure maps daily from the monthly averages are compared to adjust the displacements of the positive and negative departure zones.
34;Arctowski, Henryk et Moniak, Jan, Sur les changements diurnes dans la distribution de la pression atmosphérique.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 4I
Similar to the seasonal effect should be the effect of abnormally rising or falling solar constant values. Then, as with seasonal variations, a decrease in solar radiation will have a maximum effect where the potential for temperature change is greatest: in the centers of continentality. The resulting changes in pressure and air currents at the Earth's surface should therefore be regionally different driven by any change in solar radiation intensity.
Then the effect of continentality will be removed from the problem and the direct impulse of a constant solar change will be removed.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE — ARCTOWSKI 43
THE DIRECT HIT
The figures from the following table give temperature differences from day to day at altitudes of 3 to 17 km. The temperature soundings are made during the night, shortly after midnight Washington time, and the solar constant data are morning observations of the same date. Let us compare the curves of the temperatures observed more or less simultaneously, at an altitude of 12 km., across the United States.
5 SOLAR CONSTANTS AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 45 we take into account the time differences and a possible slight.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 45 we take into consideration the time differences and a possible slight
THERMO-ISOHYPSES
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 10
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE — ARCTOWSKI 47
THE THERMOTERONS OF OCTOBER 17-27, 1939
The card of October 21, which corresponds to an increase of the solar constant, on the contrary, shows an undeniable increase of temperature; at the centres: +23° F. A comparison with the weather charts of the 20th and 21st leads to many questions that cannot be satisfactorily answered. But the last northwestern anoteron turned its axis to the west, an axis similar to that of the southwestern states.
But all this concerns the lower part of the troposphere, possibly only the practosphere.
NO. S SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 51
ALTOTERONS
The maps of differences, from day to day, of the observed temperatures at different altitudes show that at least up to 17 km. are waves of rise and fall. Of the cards traced for October, 1939, those from the i8th. to the 24th, corresponding to the quoted solar constant data, be described. Since there is a difference of approx. 7 hours between the observations of the morning weather maps and the observations of the upper air data, the surface ice allotherms for the 20th and 21st night observations (Figs. 29, 30) compare well enough with the detailed morning maps. (fig. 24, 25).
In a paper on terrestrial radiation published in 1928 (Mem.. 3, No Simpson writes: "We therefore arrive at the result that the cloud amounts on the three planets Mars, the Earth and Venus are in the same relative order as the intensity of the solar radiation on their positions, which supports the proposal that the amount of cloud plays a dominant role in adjusting the balance of incoming and outgoing radiation in.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE — ARCTOWSKI 53
We then compare for each day maps of isalotherms drawn for different altitudes, and see characteristic changes in the direction of extension of the altoterones—for example, the i8th between 7 and 13 and 13 and 15 km. Finally, we see extensions of one system waves over the States, crossings higher up, and above dominance of an opposite direction. A comparison of the maps for given heights from day to day shows that apart from the prevailing northwest-southeast and southwest-.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOVVSKI 55
It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that if the entire system of daily temperature changes, which extends to the heights of the upper stratosphere, operates under the influence of variations in the intensity of solar radiation, such must also be the first cause of everything. But the upper atmospheric temperatures change from day to day, forming a complex system of variations.
NO. 5 SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE ARCTOWSKI 57
Even higher, the flames of the Ci clouds show that in the upper troposphere the ascending sheets extend high above the altitudes for the formation of these clouds of ice crystals. The Cu-Ni or thunderclouds are associated with bends of the isobars (Durand-Greville). Are these bends of isabares the cause of thunderstorms or thunderstorm fronts moving eastward, or does the barometer simply record the passage of these complex columns of ascending air masses, best studied by statoscopic records.
With this perspective in mind, even a more superficial study of American radiometeorographic observation tables is instructive.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
It is therefore necessary to consider two or more systems of pressure and temperature changes, one above the other. Annual changes of Batavia atmospheric data in the upper part of the air during the years 1910-1915 show an increase in amplitude with increasing altitude and a contrast of seasonal maxima and minima of temperature recorded at 11 and 17 km. In Section 6, the Batavia Observatory data were taken primarily to demonstrate the important role of the stratosphere in annual variations—perhaps also in day-to-day variations under the influence of solar radiation anomalies.
The diagrams of lapserates show that a distinction should be made between a lower troposphere, with increasing lapserates in height, and an upper troposphere (Fig. 20).
