Greil, one of the only people who enjoys talking statistics, a title that falls far short of the incredible knowledge base you have secured over a lifetime as a successful researcher and professor - I thank you for the hours you spent working through the intricacies of complex. survey design and structural equation modeling with me, despite the fact that in retirement. For my cohort, and the rest of the Alfred University School Psychology program as well as those who have retired, one would be hard-pressed to find individuals more dedicated to producing high-quality work and helping others to to do that too. To my family and friends, I thank you for never punishing me for the time I devoted to this project.
The completion of this project is a testament to the environment you have given me, the incredible sacrifices you have made, and the love I have received and continue to receive. I dedicate this project to all of you and hope that I can contribute to your own goals in the ways that you have helped me achieve mine.
Introduction
The current literature provides evidence to support this logical link between EF and EBP. 2013) conducted a meta-analysis using a unity/diversity framework to understand the unique relationship between three EF constructs (i.e., inhibition, WM, and CF) and EBP in preschool children. For example, much of the current research available uses general measures of EF rather than separate EF factors. For example, we currently do not fully understand the development of EF and its components, nor do we understand the relationship between individual components of EF and EBP.
The aim was to investigate the longitudinal relationship between two major components of EF (namely WM and CF) and the presence of EBP. This advances assessment practice by providing preliminary evidence of the predictive value of specific components of EF.
Literature Review
A pioneering study by Miyake et al. 2000) proposed a conceptual framework that has informed several studies of EF in both adults and children. To explore the unity/diversity theoretical framework of EF, Miyake et al. 2000) first identified three commonly postulated factors of EF and they are as follows: Inhibition, Updating (Working Memory [WM]) and Shifting (Cognitive Flexibility [CF]). The results of Miyake et al. 2000) CFA revealed that after analyzing inhibition, WM, and CF as three separate factors, a full three-factor model provided the best fit to the data relative to both a two-factor model and a one-factor model of the EC.
Continued support for EF's Unity/Diversity Framework comes from work with numerous populations, including children, adolescents, older adults, and clinical populations (Friedman et al., 2008). In their large, nationally representative study, Best et al., (2011) examined the influence of EF on the academic performance of a broad age range (5 to 17 years) of students. Further support for the processing-specific model of WM comes from research conducted by Luciana et al.
In particular, the influence of WM and CF on EBP was examined using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten cohort (ECLS-K; Tourangeau et al., 2017).
Method
For the current study, all study variables were directly taken from the ECLS-K database. The WJ-III-COG format is organized hierarchically, with tests that fit into groups. For example, the clinical working memory cluster of the WJ-III-COG showed a correlation of r = 0.64 with the short-term memory composite of.
The number of cards that the child correctly sorted when the sorting rule was applied by the presence of a black border on the edge of the cards constituted the Boundary Game score (Tourangeau et al., 2017). In particular, computer administration of the DCCS allowed the inclusion of response time in the calculation of the final score. As already mentioned, the overall score for the second grade administration of the DCS is calculated based on the students' accuracy and reaction time.
To calculate the reaction times, the child's median reaction time to correct for non-dominant trials was used. Taken together, both results provided sufficient evidence to justify the use of the DCCS with the current sample. Data on the magnitude of EBP were collected using the Social Skills Rating System - Teacher Rating Form (SSRS-TRF; Gresham & Elliott, 1990).
Taken together, both of these examples provide support for the convergent validity of the TRF on the SSRS. In summary, the TRF of the SSRS has multiple sources of evidence that establish acceptable validity for the current study's purposes. The endogenous outcome variable of the current study included the spring of second grade measure of EBP.
Results
In the present study, it was hypothesized that WM1 would have a significant negative relationship with the presence of EBP in the spring of second grade (See
In this study, it was hypothesized that CF1 would have a significant negative association with the presence of EBP in the spring of the second grade (see
In the present study, it was hypothesized that CF1 would have a significant negative relationship with the presence of EBP in the spring of second grade (See
The current study hypothesized that CF2 would significantly mediate the relationship between WM1 and EBP as measured in the spring of second grade (See Figure 6)
This can be achieved through a special regression analysis; however, this was not done as part of the current study as other mediating conditions were not present. Next, a significant direct effect of the independent variable on the mediating variable (i.e., WM on CF) must be present. Given the lack of a direct effect of CF2 on EBP, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected as the model did not provide data supporting a direct effect of the hypothesized mediating variable on the dependent variable of interest.
The present study hypothesized that the decline in second-degree WM and CF measures would have a stronger relationship with the spring of second-degree EBP compared to earlier. In the current study, 𝛽 coefficients from each time point of WM and CF were visually inspected to determine whether their strength increased as the measure of WM or CF temporally moved closer to the spring measure of EBP. In contrast, of all CF time points, CF1 showed the strongest direct effect on EBP (β . = -.06; t = -2.03; p = .049), thus providing no evidence to support the hypothesis that the strongest effect The relationship between EF and EBP would be between measures closer in time to the measure of EBP.
In fact, this skewed distribution within CF was part of the decision to change the administration of the DCCS to a computerized format that scored on accuracy and RT, beginning in the fall of second grade. After the change in use of the DCCS during the fall of second grade, the relationship between WM and CF again reached a significant level (WM5 and CF5; r = .1; p . < .001). Creating more variation between scores on the DCCS, by introducing an RT component into the score, improved the significance of the correlation between WM and CF compared to the spring of first grade, where many of the participants had mastered the DCCS.
In line with this idea, the path analysis findings are indicative of a consistent pattern regardless of the level of participants. In particular, the predictive utility of WM on CF was found at multiple time points. Together with the aforementioned finding that the predictive power of WM on CF was multilevel (e.g., WM1 significantly predicted CF5), the current results provide strong evidence in support of the theory that WM is important for the development of CF.
Discussion
Although this was not one of the current study's main aims, results were supportive of previous research showing a protracted development of WM and CF (e.g. Best & . Miller, 2010; Best et al., 2009). In terms of the relationship between WM and CF, the present study provides evidence in support of Miyake et al. (2000) claim that different EF tasks typically manifest low. As already mentioned, the current study adds to previous research in supporting the claim that WM and CF show developmental growth during the early elementary years (e.g., Best & Miller, 2010;
The current study's finding that early CF significantly predicted later EBP provides replication to the Schoemaker et al. 2013) conducted meta-analysis with preschoolers who also found a small effect size of CF on concurrent EBP. The current study sought to better understand the development of EF and its relationship with EBP in order to equip school-based practitioners with another tool to help children who present with problematic behavior in the school setting. Considering the small effect also found between SES and EBP, it seems the current.
The current study shows the same finding, in the order of a small to medium effect of being black and exhibiting significantly lower levels of WM and CF during the fall of kindergarten. One problem that the current study suffered from, in common with many other studies of EF, is the issue of task impurity (Miyake et al., 2000). The current study was unable to use this form of SEM due to the ECLS-K data set containing only one indicator or measure for each component of EF.
Finally, although the current study controlled for SES, previous research has shown a clear relationship between. Regarding the development of CF, the present study provides strong support for the idea that WM is important for the eventual development of CF, with predictive strength observed between WM and CF spanning two grade levels. Regarding the methodology, the current study used two respected measures of WM and CF, as well as a powerful statistical technique for.
Thus, the current study provides some of the first evidence assessing the extent of influence that WM has on CF development from kindergarten through second grade. Finally, school practitioners can use the current study as a preliminary look at the effectiveness of using WM and CF measures to predict later EBP.
