REPRODUCTION – process which organisms create descendants. A necessary process that ensures continuation of species.
GONADS (TESTES AND OVARIES) – are endocrine glands that act as primary organs of reproductive system. Produces gametes, which are the sperm and egg cell that comes from male and female.
SPERM – male gamete, secondary oocyte, along with first polar body and corona radiate.
EGG CELLS – female gametes must meet in the female reproductive system to create a new individual.
both female and male reproductive system are essential.
Male reproductive organs are both inside and outside the pelvis.
Female reproductive organs entirely within the pelvis.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTE - composed of several organ that performs:
Produce, maintain, and transport sperm cells and protective fluid or semen.
Discharge sperm in the female reproductive tract during copulation.
Produce and secrete male sex hormones.
SPEM CELLS – produced in the testes and are
transported through the reproductive ducts.
These ducts include the epididymis, vas
deferens, ejaculatory duct and urethra.
The reproductive glands produce secretions that become part of semen, the fluid that is
ejaculated from the urethra.
These glands include the seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral glands.
COWPER’S GLAND
(BULBOURTHRAL GLANDS) D: pea sized organs
posterior to the prostate on either of the urethra.
F: secretion of gelatinous seminal fluid called pre- ejaculate. This fluid helps to lubricate the urethra for spermatozoa to pass through, and to help flush out any residual urine or foreign matter.
EPIDIDUMIS
D: tightly coiled duct lying just outside each testis connecting efferent ducts to vans deferens.
F: storage and maturation of sperm.
PENIS
D: three columns of erectile tissue: two corpora
cavernosa and one pass through penis.
F: male reproductive organ and also male organ of urination.
PROSTATE GLAND
D: surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder and can be felt during rectal exam.
F: stores and secrets a clear, slightly alkaline fluid
constituting up to 1/3 of the volume of semen. Raise vaginal pH(25-30%) of semen.
SEMINAL VESICLES D: convoluted structure attached to vas deferens near the base of the urinary bladder.
F: about 65-75% of the seminal fluid in humans originates from the seminal vesicles. Contains protein, enzymes, fructose, mucus, vitamin C, flavins,
phosphorylcholines and prostaglandins. High fructose concentrations provide nutrient energy for the spermatozoa as they travel through the female reproductive system.
TESTES
D: inside scrotum, outside of body.
F: gonads that produce sperm and male sex
hormones. Production of testosterone by cells of Leydig in the testicles.
URETHRA
D: connects bladder to outside body, about 8 inches long.
F: tubular structure that receives urine from bladder and carries to to outside of the body. Also passage for sperm.
VAS DEFERENS D: muscular tubes
connecting the left and right epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts to move sperm.
HUMAN FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM - made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in reproductive of new offspring. These organs perform:
Produces eggs (ova)
Secretes sex hormones
Receive spermatozoa
Protects and nourishes the fertilized egg until it is fully develop
Delivers fetus through birth canal
Provides nourishment to the baby though milk secreted by mammary glands in the breast OVARIES
D: ovoid structures on either side of the uterus in the pelvic cavity.
F: primary sex organs of female; contain ovarian follicles that contain the oocytes. Oocytes are released during the ovulation stage of the menstrual cycle.
FALLOPIAN TUBES
D: extend from lateral areas of uterus to near the ovaries.
F: transport oocyte to uterus after fertilization and are the sites where fertilization sperm actually occurs.
UTERUS
D: pear shaped structure divided into the fundus and the cervix
F: site of fetal development during gestation.
VAGINA
D: located between rectum and urethra; smooth muscle line with an epithelial mucous membrane.
F: path for menstrual blood and tissues to leave the body, as well as the fetus during childbirth. Produces a variety of secretions for lubrication and receives secretions that facilitate fertilization.
VULVA
D: externally locates: labia majora and minora, mons pubis, clitoris, vestibule greater and lesser vestibular glands.
F: sexual function: heavily innervated and provide pleasure when properly stimulated.
PERINEUM
D: area between vagina and anus.
F: helps form the muscular floor of pelvis; can be torn during vaginal childbirth MAMMARY GLANDS D: superficial to pectoral muscles.
F: provides nourishment to the baby through milk secretions.
HORMONES
- regulate complex chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands that carried through the bloodstream to the target organ in many areas of the body.
- carry a specific role during puberty, ovulation,
pregnancy, and development.
Reproductive glands are controlled by the pituitary glands, which is controlled by the hypothalamus.
Male and female
reproductive glands works at a low level until the age of 10. After this, hormone levels begin to increase, and physical changes start to develop.
Hypothalamus releases chemical substances that signal the pituitary gland to
start producing two hormones responsible for reproduction (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone).
Both sexes produces these kind of hormones. They affect the testes and the ovaries.
LH of the male send signals in the testes to produce testosterone with FSH to control the production of sperm and the growth of facial hair.
In females, the pituitary hormones, LH and FSH stimulates the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone. These
hormones are responsible to produce ova or mature egg cells.
ROLES OF REPRODUCTIVE HORMONES
GLAND: TESTES
HORMONES: testosterone F: regulates the
development of the male sex organs in the embryo. It also controls sex drive and secondary sex
characteristics at puberty.
(can also be found in females, but because of its small amount there is not much effort observed) GLAND: OVARIES HORMONES: ESTROGEN F: controls sex drive and regulated the development of female secondary sex characteristics at puberty.
(can also be found in males, but because of its small amount there is not much effort observed)
HORMONES:
PROGESTERONE F: it controls the development of
endometrium during the menstrual cycle and maintenance of uterus during pregnancy.
GLAND: PITUITARY
HORMONES: LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH) & FOLLICLE- STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)
F: stimulates ovulation, maturation of egg cells, and
progesterone production, whereas in males, it stimulates sperm and testosterone production.
FEEDBACK MECHANISM INVOLVED IN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM HORMONE REGULATION:
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS - hormones control many cell activities, so they are very important for hemeostasis.
HEMEOSTASIS - responsible in the
regulation and maintenance of the internal environment of the body.
- regulates body
temperature, fluids, salts, acids, gases, and nutrients that help support human life.
- internal control system of the body responds
immediately to change from the different conditions or internal environment.
DIFFERENT CONTROL SYSTEMS
SENSOR – are the receptors that are responsible in gathering information about the conditions inside and outside of the body.
CONTROL CENTER – control center of the body is the brain, which is part of the nervous system. The brain receives information from the sensors.
COMMUNICATING SYSTEMS – the nervous and endocrine system are the
communicating system of the body. They carry information to all parts of the body. Through nerve impulse and hormones, they dictate to the target cell or organs in the body how to respond with the internal and external changes. Target or any organs, tissue, or cell responsible for the changes in the activity of the body in response to the message received.
TARGET CELL RESPONSE TO HORMONE – different types of hormones are secreted by endocrine glands and are directly diffused into the bloodstream. The hormones
will travel to the different parts of the body. Only the target cells have receptors to which the specific type of hormone can bind. The response occurs when the hormones lock, and key binding triggers the target tissue.
Most hormones are regulated by feedback mechanisms.
feedback mechanisms is a loop in which a product feeds back to control its own production.
Most hormone feedback mechanisms involve negative feedback loops.
Negative feedback keeps the concentration of a hormone within a narrow range.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK – occurs when a product feeds back to decrease its own production. Brings thing back to normal whenever they start to become too extreme.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK – occurs when a product feeds back to increase its own
production. Causes conditions to become increasingly extreme.
MENTRUAL CYCLE - ages 11-16
- menstru means “monthly”- leading to the term
menstrual cycle.
- every cycle prepares a woman’s body for potential pregnancy.
- average menstrual cycle takes about 28 days and occurs in phases, these are:
The follicular phase (development of the egg)
The ovulatory phase (release of the egg)
The luteal phase
(hormone level decrease if the egg does not implant)
Menstrual phase FOUR MAJOR HORMONES INVLOVE IN MENS CYCLE
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSL)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Estrogen (E)
Progesterone (P) How many eggs does a woman have?
- During fetal life, there are about 6 million to 7 million eggs. From this time, no new eggs are produced. At birth, there are approximately 1 million eggs; and by the time of puberty, only about 300 ,000 remain. Of these, only 300 to 400 will be ovulated during a woman's reproductive lifetime.
Fertility can drop as a woman ages due to decreasing number and quality of the remaining eggs.
CHILDBIRTH – example of a situation in which the maintenance of the existing body state is not
maintained.
- enormous changes are required to expel the baby at the of pregnancy.
- childbirth must progress rapaidly to a conclusion or the lves of the mother and the baby are at risk.
- the extreme muscular work of labor and delivery are the result of a positive feedback system.
- head of the baby pushes against cervix
- nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain
- brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin - oxytocin carried in bloodstream to uterus - oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes baby towards cervix
OXYTOCIN – causes stronger contraction of the muscles in of the uterus.
HEMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS helps the body to restore and maintain balance. A negative feedback
mechanism serves to make the unwanted change smaller, while a positive feedback mechanism
increases the change before the body can return to homeostasis.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - control system of ductless gland that secrete hormones within specific organs.
- made up of organs called endocrine glands.
- gland is the smallest living unit in the body that
produces a chemical called hormones.
- hormones are messengers and are carried by the bloodstream to different cells in the body.
- provides electrochemical connection from the
hypothalamus of the brain to all the organs that control the body metabolism, growth and development, and reproduction.
- two types of hormone secreted, steroidal (lipid- based) and non-steroidal (protein based).
- regulates hormones through negative feedback, expect in in specific cases like childbirth.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS - have no duct and release their secretions directly into intercellular fluid or into the blood.
The main glands are the pituitary (master gland), anterior and posterior lobes, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal (cortex and medulla), pancreas, and gonads.
Pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus of the lower forebrain.
The thyroid gland consists of two lateral masses, connected by a cross bridge, that are attached to the trachea.
They are slightly inferior to the larynx.
The parathyroid glands are four masses of tissue, two embedded
posteriorly in each lateral
mass of the thyroid gland.
One adrenal gland is located on top of each kidney. The cortex is the outer layer gland is located on top each kidney. The cortex is the outer layer of the adrenal gland. The medulla is the inner core.
The pancreas is along the lower curvature of the stomach, close to where it meets the first region of the small intestine, the duodenum.
The gonads (ovaries and testes_ are found in the pelvic cavity.
NERVOUS SYSTEM - highly complex part of an animal that
coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body.
NERVE CELL OR NEURONS – electrical signals, carry nerve impulses, or action potential, from one part of the body to another.
STIMULUS - any change in the environment which causes organisms to react
RECEPTOR – perceived by this cell or organ
EFFECTOR – body’s response to such stimulus is
demonstrated by this cellTHREE PARTS OF NEURONS
CELL BODY – controls growth of a nerve cell DENDRITES - short- branched fiber that carry impulses or massages toward the cell body AXON – long, thin fiber that carries messages away from the cell body CLASSIFICATION
ACCORDING TO THE DIRECTION OF THE
MESSAGE OR IMPULSE THEY CARRY
SENSORY NEURONS – carry impulses from the sense organs to the brain or spinal cord MOTOR NEURONS - carry impulses from the brain or spinal cord to the muscles
ASSOCIATIVE NEURONS OR INTERNEURONS – located at the central nervous system, process the impulses from the sensory neurons and then relay directives to motor neurons.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) – brain and spinal cord, where the interneurons receive and pass on message.
BRAIN – body’s control center.
BRAIN STEM – located below the cerebellum which serves as the body’s life support CEREBELLUM – coordinates muscle movement
CEREBRUM – has four lobes and two sides CORPUS CALLOSUM - a broad band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain HIPPOCAMPUS - a small organ located within the brain’s medial temporal lobe, which is associated mainly with memory, in particular long-term memory
MEDULLA - controls breathing, heart rate, and swallowing
MIDBRAIN - also linked to vision and controls the movement of the eye and constriction and dilation of the pupil PITUITARY GLAND - a pea-sized structure located at the base of the brain. It is part of endocrine system that produces critical hormones that control various body functions.
PONS - regulates breathing and help control eye movement THALAMUS - It serves as a relay station for senses. It is responsible in processing the information from the sense organs
SPINAL CORD – long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissues, which extends from the medulla oblangata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. It ecloses the central canal of the spinal cord, which contains cerebrospinal fluid.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) – cranial and spinal nerves
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYTEM (ANS) – controls visceral functions that occur below the level of
consciousness.
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (PSNS) – conserve energy
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS) – prepares body for action and stress SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS) – associated with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles.
HEMEOSTASIS - responsible in the
regulation and maintenance of the internal environment of the body.
REPIRATORY SYSTEM -high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood triggers faster breathing
EXCRETORY SYSTEM – low level of water in the blood triggers retention of water by the kidneys
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM – high concentration of sugar in the blood triggers secretion of insulin by an endocrine gland called the pancreas Failure of Homeostasis - Many homeostatic mechanisms such as these work continuously to maintain stable conditions in the human body. Sometimes,
however, the mechanisms fail. When they do, cells may not get everything they need, or toxic wastes may accumulate in the body. If homeostasis is not restored, the imbalance may lead to disease or even death BIOMOLECULES
- compounds present in a living system
- important for the proper functioning of the system - ranges from small molecule such as primary and
secondary metabolites and hormones, to large
macromolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acid.
CARBONYL – carbon forming double bond with oxygen ALDEHYDE – functional group with format R-C-H ALDOSE – simple sugar containing aldehyde group KETONE – functional group with format R-C-R’
KETOSE – simple sugar containing ketone group HYDROLYSIS – breakdown of molecules using water CARBOHYDRATE – chemically defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones or compound whish are
produced through hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are sugar.
Functions such as most abundant dietary source of energy.
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES MONOSACCHARIDE – most basic form of carbohydrates.
Combine through glycosidic bonds to form a larger carbohydrate, known as oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Empirical formula is CH2O
GLUCOSE
- dextrose or wine sugar. It provides both energy and structure to many organisms - broken down in glycolysis, providing energy and precursors for cellular respiration
- overabundance of glucose will be stored as a
polysaccharide called glycogen
FRUCTOSE
- a ketose also known as levulose or fruit sugar -sweetest among all sugar - can combine with glucose to form sucrose, table sugar - 70% pf the seminal fluid is composed of fructose which provides the sperm motility functions
GALACTOSE
- an aldose also known as milk sugar
- produced in many organisms including mammals
- mammals use galactose to give energy to their offspring - can combine with glucose to form lactose
DISACCHARIDES – crystalline water-soluble compounds.
Also called double sugar and is composed of two simple sugar
MALTOSE
- malt sugar, glucose + glucose
- fund in some cereals and candies
- starch digestions and may be purified from barley and other grains
SUCROSE
- table sugar, glucose + fructose
- purified sugar cane or beets
LACTOSE
- malik sugar, glucose + galactose
- found in milk
- can not digest lactose are called intolerant
POLYSACCHARIDE – glycan, large molecule made of many smaller
monosaccharides HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDE - formed by the same type of monosaccharide
1. Starch –energy storage in plant; examples are amylose and amylopectin
. Glycogen – animal cell’s energy storage; more branched than amylopectin 3. Cellulose – produced by plants and bacteria; tough,
fibrous, water-insoluble found mostly in plant cells Heteropolysaccharide- formed by different types of monosaccharides. Some examples are:
1. Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) – only in animals and bacteria and not in plants;
found in extracellular matrix which binds tissues and provides pathway for nutrients and oxygen 2. Peptidoglycan – part of bacterial cell wall in cytoplasmic membrane 3. Agarose – derived from red seaweed and is part of their cell wall; purified from agar
PROTEINS
- polymers of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
Depending on the complexity of structure, proteins are classified as primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
- Primary structures refer to a linear sequence of amino acid to form a protein.
Secondary refers to the alpha helix and beta sheet which were suggested by Linus Pauling and his
colleagues. Tertiary structure refers to one 3-dimensional molecule of combined secondary structures thus forming a globular protein.
The quaternary structure refers to multiple tertiary structures combined - CHON = AMINO ACID, building blocks of protein - Essential Amino Acids are also called indispensable amino acids. They cannot be synthesized from scratch by the body (completely or not as fast as the needed amount), thus must be supplied by diet. Most of these can be obtained from meat, eggs, and poultry.
Some plant foods like edamame and tofu contain all 9.
MYOSIN – allows movement by contraction of muscles.
Other roles:
- Catalyst - Hormonal proteins - Antibodies - Structural proteins -
Enzymes - Transport proteins - Contractile proteins
LIPIDS – organic substance that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent, called triglycerides.
- Lipids play a great role in cellular structure and are used as energy reserves due to its high calorie to energy conversion rate. While both carbohydrate and protein has around 4 calories per gram, fat called adipose tissue) converts to 9 calories per gram. Lipids are also critical for fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) to be absorbed. They are also important for body insulation.)
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS NONSAPONIFIABLE LIPIDS – cannot be broken up into smaller molecules by hydrolysis. Nonsaponifiable lipids include cholesterol, prostaglandins etc
SAPONIFIABLE – contains one or more ster group, allowing it to undergo hydrolysis in the presence of an acid, base, or enzymes, these includes triglycerides, waxes, phospholipids, and sphingolipids
a) Simple Lipids –- Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
1. Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils are fats in the liquid state.
2. Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight monohydric alcohols b) Complex Lipids – Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to alcohol and fatty acid.
1. Phospholipids: major component of cell membrane containing 2 fatty acids, a glycerol unit, phosphate group, and a polar molecule;
hydrophilic outwards and hydrophobic layer inside
2. Glycolipids
(glycosphingolipids):
Lipids containing a fatty acid, sphingosine, and carbohydrate.
3. Other complex lipids:
Lipids such as sulfolipids and amino lipids.
Lipoproteins may also be placed in this category.
PRECURSOR AND DERIVED LIPIDS
- These include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, other alcohols, fatty aldehydes, and ketone bodies,
hydrocarbons, lipid-soluble vitamins, and hormones.
Because they are
uncharged, acylglycerols (glycerides), cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters are termed neutral lipids. These compounds are produced by the hydrolysis of simple and complex lipids.
- Fatty acids are important components of all these lipids. Fatty acids are carboxylic acids (or organic acid), often with long aliphatic tails (long chains), either saturated or unsaturated.
- Saturated fatty acids – has no carbon-carbon double/triple bonds. The saturated fatty acids have higher melting points than unsaturated acids of the
corresponding size due to their ability to pack their molecules together thus leading to a straight rod- like shape. Most naturally occurring fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms and are unbranched.
- Unsaturated fatty acids – has more than one double/triple bond, then this is an indication that it is an unsaturated fatty acid. Unsaturated fatty acids have cis-double bond(s) that create a kink in their structure which doesn't allow them to group their molecules in straight rod-like shape.
Health wise, choosing unsaturated fats is suggested as they help lower cholesterol and improve heart health compared to saturated fats.
NUCLEIC ACID - refer to the genetic material found in the cell that carries all the hereditary information from parents to progeny. Besides the usual CHO, it contains Phosphorus, as part of the structures of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
DNA
Recall that inside the cell is the nucleus. In the nucleus, you have chromosomes. In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Chromosomes are made up of coiled DNA.
Parts/sections of the DNA are called genes which code for different traits (Refer to Figure 5).
DNA functions as the original blueprint for the synthesis of proteins.
DNA contains the 5- Carbon sugar
deoxyribose, phosphates, and a unique sequence of the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
The DNA molecules contain instructions a living entity requires to grow, develop, and reproduce. These instructions are present inside each cell and are inherited from the parents to their offspring.
It is made up of
nucleotides which contain a nitrogenous group, a phosphate group, and a sugar group.
RNA
• Ribonucleic acid is directly involved in protein
synthesis. Its main role is to act as a messenger
conveying instructions from
DNA for controlling the proteins synthesis.
• RNA contains the sugar ribose, phosphates, and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U).
Types Of RNA
• Only some of the genes in cells are expressed into RNA.
The following are the types of RNA wherein each type is encoded by its own type of gene:
tRNA – The transfer RNA or the tRNA carries amino acids to ribosomes while translation.
mRNA – The messenger RNA or the mRNA encodes amino acid sequences of a polypeptide.
rRNA – The ribosomal RNA or rRNA produces ribosomes with the ribosomal proteins that are organelles
responsible for the translation of mRNA.
snRNA – The small nuclear RNA forms complexes along with proteins which are utilized in RNA processing in the eukaryotes
