MATRIX C: METHODS AND APPROACHES
METHOD
BACKGROUND o Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby- leaders in this movement
o Systematic study of the principles &
procedures that could be applied to the selection & organization of the content of a language course (Palmer, 1917)
o ASPECTS:
• Vocabulary control
§ Vocabulary was seen as an essential component of reading proficiency
§ Frequency counts showed that a core of 2000 or so words occurred frequently in written text and that a knowledge of these words would greatly assist in reading a foreign language
• Grammar Control
§ Palmer had emphasized the problems of grammar for the foreign learner
§ Palmer viewed grammar as the underlying sentence patterns of the spoken language
o Leonard Bloomfield
o “Informant Method” or “Army Method”
o Innovative mainly in terms of the procedures used & the intensity of teaching rather than in terms of its underlying theory
o Language was taught by the systematic attention to pronunciation and by intensive oral drilling of its basic sentence patterns o A lesson began with work on pronunciation,
morphology, grammar; followed by drills and exercise
o Pattern Practice- basic classroom technique o Commonsense application of the idea:
Practice makes perfect
o Combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures and behaviorist psychology
o Provided methodological foundation for materials for the teaching of foreign
languages at the college and university level in the US and Canada
o DISTINCT FEATURES: (Finnochiaro, 1983)
• Attends to structure & form more than meaning
• Demand memorization of structure- based dialogue
• Language items are not necessarily contextualized
• Language learning is learning structures, sounds or words
• Mastery is sought
• Drilling is central technique
• Native-like pronunciation is sought
• Grammatical explanation is avoided
• Communicative activities only come after a long process of rigid drills and exercises
• Translation & use of student’s native language is forbidden
• Reading & writing are deferred till speech is mastered
• Target linguistic system will be learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system
• Linguistic competence is the desired goal
• Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized
• Sequence of units is solely by principles of linguistic complexity
• Teacher controls the learners & prevent them from doing anything that conflicts with the theory
• “Language is habit” , errors must be prevented
• Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is primary
• Students are expected to interact with the language system
• Teacher specify the language that
What is this? 1 What is this? 2
students are to use
• Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of language APPROACH o Involved systematic principles of selection,
gradiation and presentation o MAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
• Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is presented in written form
• Target language is the language of the classroom
• New language points are introduced and practiced situationally
• Vocabulary selection procedures are
followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered (key feature)
• Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones
• Reading & writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical & grammatical basis is established
• Structural theory of language constituted its backbone
• Language was viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements of phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence types
• Learning a language entails mastering the elements or building blocks of the language and learning the rules by which these elements are combines
• Primary medium: oral
o “Primarily what is spoken & only secondarily what is written” (Brooks 1964)
THEORY OF
LANGUAGE • Speech was regarded as the basis of language
• Structure was viewed as being at the heart of speaking ability
o “our principal classroom activity in the teaching of Englsih structure will be oral practice of structures” (Pittman. 1963)
• Knowledge of structures must be linked to situations in which they could be used
• Language was viewed as purposeful activity related to goals and situations in the real world
o “the language which a person originates…is always expressed for a purpose.” (Frisby, 1957)
§ Structural linguistics; structural theory of language constitutes its backbone
§ Language was viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence types
§ Learning a language entails mastering the elements or building blocks of the language and learning the rules by which these elements are combined
§ The primary medium of language is oral:
Speech is language
o “language is speech not writing….a language is a set of habits…teach the language, not about the language” (William Moulton) THEORY OF
LEARNING • Addresses primarily the processes rather than the conditions of learning
• Adopts an inductive approach to the teaching of grammar
• Meaning is to be induce from the way the form is used in a situation
• Extending structures and vocabulary to new situations takes place by generalization
• Reinforcement: vital element in the learning process, it increases the likehood that the behavior will occur again and eventually become a habit
• Language Mastery: represented as acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus- response chains
• Language teaching should focus on mastery of speech & that writing or even written prompts should be withheld until reasonably late in the language learning process
• PRINCIPLES OF AUDIOLINGUAL:
o Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation o Language skills are learned more
effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form o Analogy provides a better foundation for
language learning than analysis
o The meanings that words of a language have for the native speaker can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation
o “We have no reason to assume that verbal behavior differs in any fundamental
respect from nonverbal behavior, or that any new principle must be invoked to account for it” (BF Skinner, 1957) DESIGN and
OBJECTIVES • To teach a practical command of the four basic skills of language
• Skills are approached through structure
• Accuracy in both pronunciation & grammar is regarded crucial
• Errors are to be avoided at all cost o “We shall teach orally both the new
structures and the new vocabulary”
(Pittman, 1963)
o “Only when the teacher is reasonably certain that learners can speak fairly correctly w/in the limits of their knowledge of sentence structure and vocabulary may he allow them free choice in sentence patterns & vocabulary” (Pittman, 1963)
• return to speech-based instruction w/
primary objective of oral proficiency
• dismissed the study of grammar or literature as the goal of foreign language teaching
• Short Range Obj.- training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols & the ability to produce these symbols in writing
• Long Range Obj.-“must be language as the native speaker uses it…there must be some knowledge of a second language as it is possessed y a true bilingualist” (Brooks, 1964)
SYLLABUS • Structural syllabus (list of the basic structures
& sentence patterns) and a word list o Structure- always taught w/in sentences o Vocabulary- chosen according to how well
it enables sentence patterns to be taught
• Structural-based
• Lexical-syllabus of basic vocabulary item is usually specified in advance
• Language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading & writing
• Listening- viewed largely as a training in aural discrimination of basic sound patterns TEACHING/
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
• Situational approach presenting new sentence patterns & a drill-based manner of practicing them
o Situation- concrete objects, pictures and realia; actions & gestures can be used to demonstrate meanings of new language items (Pittman)
o Practice Technique-guided repetitions and substitution activities, chorus repetition, dictation, drills, controlled oral-based reading & writing tasks
o Oral Practice-pair practice & group work
• Dialogue
o means of contextualizing key structures and illustrate situations in w/c structure might be used as well as some cultural aspects of the target language
o used for repetition & memorization
• Drills & Pattern Practice-distinctive feature o KINDS: repetition; inflection;
replacement; restatement; completion;
transposition; expansion; contraction;
transformation; integration; rejoinder;
restoration LEARNER ROLES • Required simply to listen & repeat what the
teacher says
• Responds to questions & commands
• No control over the content of learning
• Avoid incorrect habits at all costs
• (Later) more active participant
• Initiates responses and asking each other questions
• Practice new language is stressed
• Reactive, responding to stimuli
• Have little control over the content, pace or style of learning
• Not encouraged to initiate interaction, because this may lead to mistakes
TEACHER ROLES • Model
• Sets up situations where need for target structure is created
• Modeling new structures for students to repeat
• Skillful manipulator, using questions, commands & other cues
o LESSON is: teacher-directed, teacher sets the pace
• Organizing review
• Central & active
• Teacher-dominated method
• Teacher models the target language
• Controls the direction & pace of learning
• Monitors & corrects learner’s performance
• Keep the learners attentive by varying drills
& tasks & choosing relevant situations to practice structures
ROLE OF INST.
MATERIALS • Textbook (tightly organized lesson planned around different grammatical structures)
• Visual Aids ( wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figures)
• Assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner
• Teacher have access to a teacher’s book that contains the structured sequence of lessons
• Tape recorders & audiovisual equipments often have central roles
• Language laboratory-provides accurate models for further drill work & to receive controlled error-free practice of basic structure
PROCEDURE • Consist of Five Parts o Pronunciation
o Revision (prepare for new work if necessary)
o Presentation of new structure or vocabulary
o Oral practice (drilling)
o Reading of material on new structure, or written exercise
• Involves extensive oral instruction
• Focus of instruction is on immediate &
accurate speech
• Little provision for grammatical explanation or talking about the language
• Target language is used as the medium of instruction
• Translation or use of the native language is discouraged
• Classes of 10 or fewer is considered optimal OTHER
HIGHLIGHTS • • DECLINE
o Practitioners found that the practical results fell short of expectations o Students were found unable to transfer
skills acquired
o Many students found it boring &
unsatisfying CONCLUSION • Essential features of SLT are seen in the PPP
lesson model
o Presentation- introduction of a new teaching item in context
o Practice-controlled practice o Production- freer practice phase
• Because of the principles of SLT and its strong emphasis on oral practice, grammar and sentence patterns; conforms to the
institutions of many language teachers, and offer a practical methodology suited to countries where national EFL/ESL syllabuses continue to be grammatically based, it continues to be widely used , though not necessarily widely acknowledge
• There are many similarities between SLT &
Audiolingualism. The order which the language skills are introduced, and the focus on accuracy through drill & practice in the basic structure & sentence patterns of the target language. These similarities reflect similar views about the nature of language &
of learning, through these views were in fact developed from quite different traditions
METHOD
BACKGROUND o James Asher- sees successful adult second language learning as a parallel process to child first language acquisition
• Claims that speech directed to young children consists primarily of command, w/c children respond to physically before they begin to produce verbal responses o Built around the coordination of speech &
action
o Attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity
o Method that is undemanding in terms of linguistic production & involves gamelike movements reduces learner stress & creates a positive mood in the learner w/c facilitates learning
o Caleb Gattegno
o Base on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible & the
classroom but the learner should be
encouraged to produce as much language as possible
APPROACH o Grammar-based view of language
o Asher views the verb, particularly imperative verb, as the central linguistic motif around w/c language use & learning are organized
o Stimulus Response View- provides the learning theory
o “Trace Theory”-linked to TPR, of memory in psychology; the more often or intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory association will be & the more likely will be recalled
o (INFLUENTIAL) LEARNING HYPOTHESES-
• There exist a specific bio-program for language learning
§ 3 Bio-Program Process:
Ø Children develop listening competence before they develop the ability to speak Ø Because children are required to respond physically, their listening comprehension ability is acquired
Ø Speech evolves naturally & effortlessly once listening comprehension foundation is established
• Brain lateralization defines different learning functions in the left & right brain hemisphere
§ Directed to right brain learning; language through motor movement
§ Similarly, adult should proceed to language mastery through right- hemisphere motor activities, while the left-hemisphere watches & learns
• Stress intervenes between the act of learning & what is to be learned
§ Stress Reduction- absence of stress
§ Language acquisition takes place in a stress-free environment
• LEARNING HYPOTHESES
o Learning is facilitated of the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers & repeats what is to be learned
§ Benefits derived from “Discovery Learning” (Bruner, 1966)
Ø Increase intellectual potency Ø Shift from extrinsic to intrinsic
rewards
Ø Learning of heuristic discovering Ø Aid to conserving memory
o Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects
§ Rods & Fidel Charts- provide physical foci for learners
o Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned
§ Related to a set of premise that we have called “problem-solving approaches to learning”
THEORY OF
LANGUAGE • Requires initial attention to meaning rather
than to the form of items • Successful learning involves commitment of the self to language acquisition through the use of silent awareness & then active trial
• Focus on the self of the learner, priorities &
commitments
• Silence- considered the best vehicle for learning because in silence learners
What is this? 3 What is this? 4
concentrate on the tasks to be accomplished
& the potential means to its accomplishment
• Inner Criteria- acquired by learners; allow learners to monitor & self-correct their own production
• Self-awareness- what makes Silent Way different from other ways of language learning
THEORY OF
LEARNING • Grammar is taught inductively
• Fixed number of items are to be introduced at a time, to facilitate ease of differentiation &
assimilation
• Structural approach to the organization of language to be taught
• Sentence is the basic unit of teaching
• Teacher focus: propositional meaning rather than communicative value
• Vocabulary is the central dimension of language learning (Gattegno)
• Choice of vocabulary is crucial (Gattegno)
• Deals with the most functional & versatile words of the language
• Learners “return to the state of mind that characterizes a baby’s learning-surrender”
(Scott & Page, 1982) DESIGN and
OBJECTIVES • To teach oral proficiency at a beginning level
• To teach basic speaking skills
• Aims to produce learners who are capable of an uninhibited communication that is intelligible to a native speaker
• Must be attainable through the use of action- based drills in the imperative form
• General Obj.- give beginning level students oral & aural facility in basic elements of the target language
• General Obj.-emphasis on the near-native fluency in the target language & correct pronunciation & mastery of the prosodic elements of the target language
• Immediate Obj.- provide learners with basic practical knowledge of the grammar SYLLABUS • Inferred from an analysis of exercise types
employed in TPR classes
• Sentence-based Syllabus- grammatical &
lexical criteria primary in selecting teaching items
• Structural syllabus
• Lessons planned around grammatical items
& related vocabulary
• Language are introduced according to their grammatical complexity, relationship to previous learning, & ease with which items can be presented visually
TEACHING/
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
• Imperative Drills- major classroom activity;
used to elicit physical actions & activity on the part of the learners
• Conversational Dialogues- delayed until after about 120 hours of instruction
• Role Plays- should focus on everyday situations
• Have function of encouraging & shaping student oral response w/o direct oral
instruction from or unnecessary modeling by the teacher
LEARNER
ROLES • Listener
• Performer
• Expected to recognize & respond to novel combination of previously taught items
• Required to produce novel combinations of their own
• Monitor & evaluate their own progress
• Encouraged to speak when they feel ready to speak
• Expected to develop independence, autonomy & responsibility
• Required to develop “inner criteria” & to correct themselves
TEACHER
ROLES • Active and direct role
• Decides what to teach, who models & presents the new materials, & who selects supporting materials for classroom use
• (Asher) not so much to teach but to provide opportunities for learning
• Provide best kind of exposure to language so that the learner can internalize basic rules of the target language
• Controls the language input received by learners
• Minimal teacher modeling
• Teach, test and get out of the way
• Silently monitors learners’ interactions w/
each other & may even leave the room while learners struggle w/ their new linguistic tool
• Provide raw materials for the “cognitive map”
that learners will construct in their own minds
• Allow speaking abilities to develop in learners at learner’s own natural pace
• Refrain from too much correction in the early stages
ROLE OF INST.
MATERIALS • Beginners, lessons may not require the use of materials since teacher’s voice, actions and gestures may be a sufficient basis for classroom activities
• Later, teacher may use common classroom objects such as realia; collect supporting materials to support the lesson
• Designed for manipulation by the students as well as by the teacher, independently &
cooperatively
• Set of colored rods, color-coded
pronunciation & vocabulary wall charts, pointer, reading/writing exercise PROCEDURE • Review
• New commands
• Role reversal
• Reading & writing
• First part of the lesson focuses on pronunciation
• Beginning Stage- teacher models appropriate sound after pointing to a symbol on a chart
• Later Stage- teacher silently point to individual symbols & combinations of utterances & monitors student utterances
• Pointer- used to indicate stress, phrasing &
intonation
• Stress- shown by touching certain symbols more forcibly than others
• Intonation & Phrasing- demonstrated by tapping on the chart to the rhythm of the utterance
CONCLUSION • Should be used in association with other methods and techniques
• Represents a useful set of techniques & is compatible with other approaches to teaching
• Innovations from Gattegno’s method derive primarily from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the direct role of the teacher is required to assume in directing &
monitoring learner performance, the
responsibility placed on the learners to figure out & test their hypotheses about how the language works, and the materials used to elicit & practice language.
METHOD
BACKGROUND o Charles A. Curan
• His application of psychological counseling techniques to learning is known as
Counseling-Learning
o Derives its primary insights, & indeed its organizing rationale from Rogerian Counseling (Rogers 1951)
o Draws on the counseling metaphor to
redefining the roles of the teacher & learners in language classroom
o Humanistic technique
o “Blend what the students feels, thinks & knows w/ what he is learning in the target language.”
(Moskowitz, 1978)
o engage the whole person including the emotions & feelings as well as linguistic knowledge & behavior skills
o Georgi Lasonov
o Specific set of learning recommendations derived from Suggestology
o “science…concerned with as systematic study of the motivational and/or nonconscious influence” (Stevick, 1976) o most conspicuous characteristics:
decoration, furniture, and arrangement of classroom
o uses Music Therapy
o 3 Functions of Music Therapy:
• facilitate the establishment &
maintenance of personal relations
• bring about increased self-esteem
• use unique potential of rhythm to energize
& bring order APPROACH o La Forge goes beyond the structuralism view of
language and elaborates an alternative theory of language which is referred to as “Language as Social Process”
o “Language is people; language is persons in contact; language is persons in response” (La Forge, 1983)
o 2 FUNDAMENTAL INTERACTIONS:
• Interaction between Learners- unpredictable in content but typically are said to involve exchange of affect; the desire to be part of the growing intimacy pushes learners to keep pace with the learning of their peers
• Interaction between Learns and Knowers- initially are dependent
• Emphasis on memorization of vocabulary pairs
• Refers to language to be learned as
“material”
• Suggestion is at the heart of this theory
• PRINCIPAL THEORITICAL COMPONENTS:
o Authority- people remember & are most influence by information coming from an authoritative source
o Infantilization- suggest a teacher-student relation like parent to a child
o Double-Planedness- learners also learns from the environment where learning takes place
o Intonation, Rhythm & Concert Pseudo- Passiveness- varying tone & rhythm of presented material helps both to avoid boredom ; intonation & rhythm are coordinated w/the musical background;
induce a relax attitude THEORY OF
LANGUAGE • Consensual Validation or Covalidation is considered essential in to the learning process
& key element of CLL classroom procedures
•
THEORY OF
LEARNING • View learning as a holistic one, since “true”
human learning is both cognitive & affective;
“whole-person learning”
• Five Stages:
o “Birth” Stage- feelings of security &
belonging are established
o learner as a child- begins to achieve a measure of independence from the parent o learner “speaks independently” & may
need to assert his or her own identity o learner is secure enough to take criticism o learner merely works on improving style &
knowledge of linguistic appropriateness
• Requirements for Successful Learning o Security
o Attention & Aggression o Retention & Reflection o Denotes discrimination
• Address not the psycholinguistic &
cognitive processes involved in second
•
What is this?
What is this? 5 6
language acquisition but rather the personal commitments that learners need to make before language acquisition can operate
DESIGN and
OBJECTIVES • Progression is topic-based
• Learners nominate things they wish to talk about & meanings they wish to communicate with other learners
• To deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly
• Bases its learning claims on students’
mastery of prodigious list of vocabulary pairs
• Classes are held 4 hours a day, 6 days a week
• Unit study is organized around 3 days
• Days 2 & 3: Primary elaboration (imitation, question & answer, reading) and Secondary elaboration (encouraging students to make new combination s& productions based on dialogues)
• Last day is devoted to performance in which every student participates
SYLLABUS • Emerges from the interaction between the learners expressed communicative intentions
& the learner’s reformulations of these into suitable target-language utterances
•
TEACHING/
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
• Combines innovative learning tasks & activities w/ conventional ones (translation, group work, recording, transcription, analysis, refection &
observation, listening, free conversation)
• Imitation, question and answer and role play
LEARNER
ROLES • Member of a community
• Expected to listen attentively to the knower
• Freely provide meaning they wish to express
• Repeat target utterances without hesitation
• Support fellow members of a community
• Report deep inner feelings & frustrations, as well as joy & pleasure
• Counselors to other learners
• Must forgo mind-altering substances & other distractions
• Immerse themselves in the procedures of the method
• Must not try to figure out, manipulate or study presented but must maintain pseudo- passive state
• Expected to tolerate & in fact, encourage their own “infantilization”
TEACHER
ROLES • Supportive role, providing target language translation & a model for imitation on request of client
• Monitors learner’s utterances providing assistance when requested
• May intervene directly to correct deviant utterances, supply idiom & advice on usage &
fine point in grammar
• Create situations in which the learner is most suggestible
• Present linguistic material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention by learner
ROLE OF INST.
MATERIALS • May be developed by the teachers as the course develops
• Conversations may be transcribed &
distributed for study & analysis, learners may wok in groups
• Direct support material, primarily text & tape
• Indirect support materials, including classroom fixtures and music
PROCEDURE • First Class- may begin with a period of silence, in which learners try to determine what will happen in their language class
• Intermediate or Advanced Class- teacher may encourage groups to prepare a paper drama for presentation
• Teacher asks learners to reflect on the language class, as a class or as a group
• First Part, oral review section- previously learned materials are used as basis for discussion; involve micro studies (specific attention given to grammar, vocabulary and precise question & answer) and macro- studies (emphasis is on role playing & wide ranging ,innovative language construction)
• Second Part, introduction and presentation of new material
• Third Part, concert session-reading of text while background music is played
CONCLUSION • places unusual demands on language teachers.
They must be highly proficient & sensitive to nuance in both L1 & L2
• stresses the humanistic side of language learning and not merely its linguistic dimension
• “If we have learnt anything at all in the seventies, it is the art of language teaching will benefit very little from the pseudo-science of suggestology” (Scovel, 1979)
METHOD COMPETENCY-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING BACKGROUND o Howard Gardner-argues that all humans have
these intelligences, but people differ in strengths & combinations of intelligences o Learner-based philosophy that characterizes
human intelligence as having multiple dimensions that must be acknowledged and developed in education
o Learners are viewed as possessing individual styles, preferences or intelligences
o Gardner claims that his view of intelligences is culture-free & avoid conceptual narrowness usually associated with traditional models of intelligences
o 8 Native Intelligences:
• Linguistic
• Logical/Mathematical
• Spatial
• Musical
• Bodily/Kinesthetic
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal
• Naturalistic
o Competency Based Education- education movement that focuses on the outcomes or outputs of learning
o Competency-Based Language Teaching
• Designed not around the notions of subject knowledge but around the notion of competency(Docking, 1994)
• A syllabus & course content are developed around the subject
• Objectives may be specified but usually have little role in teaching or referencing
• Student assessment is usually based on norm referencing
• Competency- description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes & behaviors required for effective performance of the real-world task or activity
o
APPROACH o Looks at the language of the individual, including one or more second languages, not as an “added on” & somewhat peripheral skill but as central to the whole life of the language learner & user
o EIGHT KEY FEATUIRES OF CBE:
• Focus on Successful Functioning in society- enable students to become autonomous individuals capable of coping w/ the demands of the world
• Focus on life skills- teaches language as a function of communication
• Task or Performance-Centered Orientation- what counts is what
students can do as a result of instruction
• Modularized Instruction- “Language learning is broken down into
manageable & immediately meaningful chunks (Center for Applied Linguistics, 1983)
• Explicit Outcomes are Priority- specified in terms of behavioral objectives
• Continuous & Ongoing Assessment- program evaluation is based tests results
• Demonstrated Mastery of Performance Objectives- assessment is based on the ability to demonstrate prespecified behaviors
• Individualized, Student-Centered Instruction
THEORY OF
LANGUAGE • MI proponents believe that there is more to language than what is usually subsumed under rubric linguistics
• Language has its ties to life through senses
• Senses provide accompaniment & context for linguistic message that give it meaning &
purpose
•
THEORY OF
LEARNING • there exist a cluster of mental abilities that are separate but equal & that share the pinnacle at the top of the hierarchy called intelligence- thus the eight Multiple Intelligences
• “Is not a perspective. Rather, it gives teachers a complex mental model from which to
•
What is this? 7 What is this? 8
construct curriculum & improve themselves as educators” (Campbell, 1997)
DESIGN and
OBJECTIVES • aimed at making the language learner a better designer of his/her own learning experiences
• SYLLABUS • Basic Developmental Sequence (Lezar, 1991)-
considered as a type of “syllabus”
o Stage 1: Awaken the Intelligence o Stage 2: Amplify the Intelligence o Stage 3: Teach with/for the Intelligence o Stage 4: Transfer of Intelligence
• How MI can be Used to Individualize Learning:
o Multiple intelligence Projects o Curriculum-based Projects o Thematic-based Projects o Resource-based Projects o Student-choice Projects
•
TEACHING/
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
• Designed to support development of the
“whole person” to become more well-rounded individuals & more successful learners in general
•
LEARNER
ROLES • Need to see themselves as engaged in a process of personality development above &
beyond that of being a successful language learner
• Encouraged to see their goals in broader terms
• Expected to take the MI inventory
• Develop their own MI profiles
•
TEACHER
ROLES • Administer MI inventory on themselves &
thereby be able to “connect life’s experiences to your concept of MI” (Christison, 1997)i
• Curriculum developers, lesson designers &
analyst, activity finders or inventors
•
ROLE OF INST.
MATERIALS • Multi-sensory activity planning
• Realia
• PROCEDURE • Stage 1: Awaken the Intelligence
• Stage 2: Amplify the Intelligence
• Stage 3: Teach with/for the Intelligence
• Stage 4: Transfer of Intelligence
• Stage 1 & 2- relate to general development
• Stage 3- learners are more often grouped according to their goal focus & competencies are defined according to the three syllabus strands of Further Study, Vocational English and Community Access
• Four Domains of Competency Description:
o Knowledge & Learning Competencies o Oral Competencies
o Reading Competencies o Writing Competencies CONCLUSION • The literature on MI provides a rich source of
classroom ideas regardless of one’s theoretical perspective & can help teachers think about instruction in their classes in unique ways
• CBLT is seen as prescriptivist in that it
prepares students to fit into the status quo &
maintain class relationships.
• Teaching typically focuses on behavior &
performance rather than on the development of thinking skills
METHOD
BACKGROUND o Partly a response to the sorts of criticism the prominent American linguist Noam Chomsky had leveled at structural linguistic theory o Proponents saw the need to focus in language
teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures
o D.A. Wilkins (1972)- proposed a functional or communicative definition of langue that could serve as basis for developing communicative syllabuses for language teaching
• Described 2 types of meaning:
§ Notional Categories- time, sequence, quantity, location, frequency
§ Categories of Communicative Function o AIMS TO:
• Make communicative competence the goal of language teaching
• Develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language &
communication
o “One of the most characteristic of
communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language.” (littlewood, 1981)
o Strong Version of CLT (advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is not merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language but of stimulating development of the language system) and Weak Version of CLT (stresses the importance of providing learners w.
opportunities to use their English for
communicative purposes & characteristically attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching), Howatt o Firth stressed that language needed to be
studied in the broader sociocultural context of its use, which include participants, their behavior, their beliefs, the objects of linguistic discussion & word choice
o Learner-centered & experience-based view of the second language teaching
o Teachers are encouraged to develop materials
“on the basis of the particular needs manifested by the class” (Applebee, 1974)
o DISTINCT FEATURES: (Finnochiaro, 1983)
• Meaning is paramount
• Dialogues, if sued, center around communicative functions, not normally memorized
• Contextualization is basic premise
• Effective communication is sought
• Peripheral drilling
• Comprehensible pronunciation is sought
• Attempts to communicate may be encourage from the very beginning
• Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible
• Translation may be used
• Tracy Terell(1977)- attempt to develop a language teaching proposal that
incorporated the “naturalistic” principles researchers had identified in studies of second language acquisition
• Stephen Krasehen- elaborated the theoretical rationale of Natural Approach
• Place less emphasis on teacher monologues, direct repetition and formal question and answers
• Less focus on accurate production of target language sentences
• Emphasis on input rather than practice
What is this? 9 What is this? 10
• Reading & writing may start from the first day, if desired
• Target linguistic system will be learned through the process of struggling to communicate
• Communicative competence is desired goal
• Linguistic variation is central concept in materials & methodology
• Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content, function or meaning that maintains interest
• Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work
• Language is created by the individual, often through trial & error
• Fluency & acceptable language is the primary goal
• Students are expected to interact with other people
• The teacher cannot know exactly what language students will use
• Intrinsic motivation will spring from interest in what is being communicated by language
THEORY OF
LANGUAGE • Language is communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as “Communicative Competence”
• Person who acquires communicative
competence acquires both knowledge & ability for language with respect to, whether:
(Hymes, 1972)
o Something is formally possible o Something is feasible in virtue of the
means of implementation available o Something is appropriate in relation to a
context in which it is used & evaluated o Something is in fact done, actually
performed, & what its doing entails
• BASIC FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE: (Halliday, 1975)
o Instrumental function o Regulatory function o Interactional function o Heuristic function o Imaginative function o Representational function o Personal function
• DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE: (Canale & Swain, 1980) o Grammar competence
o Sociolinguistic competence- understanding of social context in w/c communication takes place, including role relationships o Discourse competence- interpretation of
individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness & of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text
o Strategic competence-coping strategies that communication employ to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, redirect communication
• Emphasize the primacy of meaning
• Importance of vocabulary is stressed
• “The quantity of information in the lexicon overweighs that in any other part of the language, & there is anything to the notion of redundancy, it should be easier to reconstruct a message containing just words than on containing just the syntactic relations.”
(Bolinger, in Terell, 1977)
• Language is viewed as a vehicle for communicating meanings & messages
• “Acquisition can take place only when people understand messages in the target language”
(Krashen & Terrell, 1983)
• Assumes linguistic hierarchy of structural complexity that one masters through encounters with “input” containing structures at the “I + 1 “ level
• Language is a system for the expression of meaning
• The primary function of language is to allow interaction & communication
• Structure of language reflects its functional &
communicative uses
• Primary units of language are not merely its grammatical & structural features, but categories of functional & communicative meaning as exemplified by discourse THEORY OF
LEARNING • Communication Principle: activities that involve real communication promote learning
• Task Principle: activities in w/c language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning (Johnson, 1982)
• Meaningfulness Principle: language that is meaningful to the learner supports learning process
• Krashen sees acquisition as the basic process involved in developing language proficiency &
distinguishes this process from learning
• “it is based on an emperically grounded theory of second language acquisition which has been supported by a large number of scientific studies in a wide variety of language acquisition & learning context”
(Krashen & Terrell, 1983)
• THE ACQUISITON/LEARNING HYPOTHESIS o 2 ways of developing competence in 2nd
language: Acquisition ( “natural way”;
unconscious process that involves naturalistic development of language proficiency) and Learning (process in which conscious rules about a language are developed)
• THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS
o Claims that we may call upon learned knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate
o 3 conditions limit: time, focus on form and knowledge of the rules
• THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS o Acquisition of grammatical structures
proceeds in a predictable order
• INPUT HYPOTHESIS
o Explain the relationship between what is the learner exposed to of a language &
language acquisition o Four Main Issues:
§ Relates to acquisition & not learning
§ People acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence
§ Ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly
§ If there is sufficient quantity of comprehensible input, I+1 will usually be provided automatically
• AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS
o Leaner’s emotional state or attitudes a an adjustable filter that free passes, impeded or blocks input necessary to acquisition
o 3 kinds of Affective Variables:
Motivation, Self-confidence & Anxiety DESIGN and
OBJECTIVES • LEVELS of OBJECTIVES: (Piepho, 1981) o Language as a means of expression
o Language as a semiotic system & an object learning
o Language as a means of expressing values
& judgment about oneself & others o Language learning within the school
curriculum
• Learners “Will be able to function adequately in target situations, understand the speaker of the target language, will be able to convey their requests & ideas, should be able to make meaning clear but not necessarily be accurate all details of grammar” (Krashen &
Terrell, 1983)
SYLLABUS • Notional Syllabus- specified the semantic- • Goals Should be Under Four Areas: (Krashen
grammatical categories & categories of communicative function that learners need to express (Wilkins, 1976)
• PROPOSALS FOR SYLLABUS:
o Structures + functions (Wilkins, 1976) o Functional spiral around a structure core
(Brumfit, 1980)
o Structural, functional, instrumental (Allen, 1980)
o Functional (Jupp & Hodlin, 1975) o Notional (Wilkins, 1976)
o Interactional (Widdowson, 1979) o Task-based ( Prabhu, 1983)
o Learner-generated ( Candlin, 1976;
Henner-Stanchina & Riley, 1978)
• “The only form of syllabus which is compatible with & can support communicational teaching seems to be a purely procedural one- which lists, in more or less detail, the types of tasks to be attempted in the classroom & suggests an order of complexity for tasks of the same king” (Prabhu, 1983)
• Some have argued that syllabus concept be abolished altogether in its accepted forms, arguing that only learners can be fully aware of their own needs
& Terrell, 1983)
o Basic personal communication skills: basic o Basic personal skills: written
o Academic learning skills: oral o Academic learning skills: written
• “designed to develop basic communication skills- both oral & written” & “will vary according to the needs of the students & their particular interests” (Krashen & Terrell, 1983)
TEACHING/
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
• Enable learners to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum
• Engage learners to communication
• Require the use of such communicative processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning & interaction
• Classroom Activities- are often designed to focus on completing tasks that re mediated through language or involve negotiation of information & information sharing
• Functional Communication Activities-
comparing sets of pictures, noting similarities
& differences; sequence of events in a set of pictures, and related activities
• Social Interaction Activities- conversation &
discussion sessions, dialogues & role play, simulation, skits, improvisations and debates
• Emphasis is on presenting comprehensible input in the target language
• Learners are not required to say anything until they feel ready but are expected to respond to teacher commands & questions in other ways
• Acquisition Activities- those that focus on meaningful communication rather than language forms
• Techniques recommended by Krashen&
Terrell are often borrowed from other methods & adapted to meet requirements of Natural Approach theory
• Use of familiar techniques within the framework of a method that focuses on comprehensible input
• A classroom environment that cues comprehension of the input, minimizes learner anxiety and maximizes learner self- confidence
LEARNER
ROLES • Negotiator, between self, the learning process
& the objects of learning ( Candlin)
• Expected to interact primarily with each other rather than with the teacher
• Correction of errors may be absent or infrequent
• Recommend that learners see that failed communication is a joint responsibility
• Seen to change according to their stage of linguistic development, central to his
changing roles are learner decisions on when to speak, what to speak about and what linguistic expression to use in speaking
o Pre-production Stage o Early-Production Stage o Speech-emergent Phase
• FOUR RESPONSIBILITIES:
o Provide information about their specific goals
o Take an active role in ensuring comprehensible input
o Decide when to start producing speech
& when to upgrade it
o Where learning exercises are to be part of the program
TEACHER • To facilitate the communication process • Primary source of comprehensible input in
ROLES between all participants in the classroom
• Act as independent participant within the learning-teaching group
• Researcher & learner with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge & abilities
• Needs analyst (assumes a responsibility for determining & responding to learner language needs)
• Counselor (expected to exemplify an effective communicator seeking to maximize the meshing of speaker intention & hearer interpretation)
• Group process manager (responsible in organizing the classroom as a setting for communication & communicative activities)
the target language
• Required to generate a constant flow of language input while providing a multiplicity of nonlinguistic clues to assist students in interpreting the input
• Creates a classroom atmosphere that is interesting, friendly, and in which there is a low affective filter for learning
• Choose and orchestrate a rich mix of classroom activities, involving a rich variety of group sizes, content and contexts
ROLE OF INST.
MATERIALS • TEXT-BASED MATERIALS
o Typical lesson consist of theme, a task analysis for thematic development, practice situation description
• TASK-BASED MATERIALS
o Variety of games, role plays, simulations, and task-based communication activities;
cue cards, exercise handbooks, activity cares, pair-communication practice materials, student-interaction practice booklets
• REALIA
o The use of “authentic”, “from life”
materials in the classroom
• Make class room activities meaningful as possible
• Realia
• Primary Aim: promote comprehension and communication
• Games: by their very nature, focus students on what it is they are doing & us the language as a tool for reaching the goal rather than as a goal in itself (Terrell, 1982)
• Facilitate the acquisition of a large vocabulary within a class
PROCEDURE • Presentation of a brief dialogue or several mini dialogues
• Oral practice of each utterance of the dialogue segment
• Question & answers based on the dialogue topic situation itself
• Study one of the basic communicative expression in the dialogue or one of the structures w/c exemplify the function
• Learner discover generalization or rule underlying functional expression of structure
• Oral recognition, interpretative activities
• Oral production activities
• Sampling of written homework assignment, if given
• Evaluation of learning
• Start with TPR
• Use TPR to teach names of body parts, numbers and sequence
• Introduce classroom terms and props command
• Use names of physical characteristics and clothing to identify members of the class by name
• Use visuals, typically magazine pictures, to introduce new vocabulary combine use of pictures with TPR
• Using several pictures, ask students to point to the picture being described
CONCLUSION • Refers to a divers asset of principles that reflects a communicative view of language and language learning & that can be used to support a wide variety of classroom procedures
• Stresses that the content or subject matter of teaching is of primary importance in teaching
• Focus more directly on instructional factores
• focus on comprehension and meaningful communication as well as provision of the right kinds of comprehensible input provide the necessary & sufficient conditions for successful classroom second & foreign language acquisition
• evolutionary rather than revolutionary in its procedures. Its greatest claim to originality lies not in the techniques employs but in their use in a method that emphasizes
comprehensible & meaningful practice activities, rather than production of
grammatically perfect utterance & sentences
METHOD
BACKGROUND o makes maximum use of cooperative activities involving pairs and small groups of learners in classroom
o group learning activity organizes so that
learning is dependent on the socially structured exchange of information (Olsen & Kagan, 1992) o provide opportunities for naturalistic 2nd
language acquisition through the use of interactive pair/ group activities
o provide teachers with a methodology to enable them to achieve goal & one that can be applied to a variety of curriculum
o enable focused attention to particular lexical items, language structures and communicative functions thru interactive tasks
o enhance learner motivation & reduce learner stress
• Teaching is organized around the content or information that students will acquire, rather than around a linguistic or other type of syllabus
• “If any word in English language is hot, buzzworthy and finger-snappingly with it, surpassing even millennium in both general discourse and insiders that word is content”
(William Safire, New York Times, 1998)
• Content-Refers to the substance or subject matter that we learn or communicate through language rather than the language used to convey it
• St. Augustine- early proponent of Content- Based Language Teaching as proposed by Brinton, Snow and Wesche (1989)
• “Language that is being taught could be used to present subject matter and students would learn the language as a by-product of learning about the real-world content “ (Widdowson, 1978)
• ROLE IN OTHER CURRICULUM DESIGN:
o Immersion Education- type of foreign language instruction in which the regular school curriculum is taught through the medium of foreign language o Immigrant On-Arrival Programs- focus
on the language newly arrived
immigrant in a country need for survival o Program for Students with Limited
English Proficiency (SLEP)-
governmentally mandated programs to serve especially those children whose parents might be served by the on- arrival programs, more generally designed to provide in-class or pullout instruction for any school-age children whose language competence is
insufficient to participate fully in normal school instruction
o Language for Specific Purposes (LSP)- movement that seeks to serve the language needs of learners who need language in order to carry out specific roles
APPROACH • • Two Central Principle:
o People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself
o Content-based instruction better reflects needs for learning second language THEORY OF
LANGUAGE • Premise 1: “all normal children growing up in a normal environment learn to talk. We are born to talk…we may think of ourselves as having been programmed to talk…communication is generally considered to be the primary purpose of language” (Weeks, 1979)
• Premise 2: most talk/ speech is organized as conversation
• Premise 3: conversation operates according to
• Language is text and discourse-based- vehicle for learning content; focus on teaching is how meaning & information are communicated and constructed through text
& discourse
• Language draws on integrated skills-
involving several skills together; students are often involved in activities that link the skills because this is how skills are generally
What is this? 11 What is this? 12
a certain agreed upon set of cooperative rules or “maxims” (Grice, 1975)
• Premise 4: one learns how these cooperative maxims are realized in one’s native language through casual, everyday conversational interaction
• Premise 5: one learns how the maxims are realized in a second language through participation in cooperatively structured interactional activities
involved in the real world; seek to bring knowledge, language and thinking skills
• Language is purposeful- used for specific purposes; purpose may vary; language contains great potential for communicating meaning
THEORY OF
LEARNING • Learners develop communicative competence in language by conversing socially or
pedagogically structured situations
• Bloom assumes a hierarchy of learning objectives ranging from simple recall of information to forming conceptual judgments
• Seeks to develop classrooms that foster
cooperation rather than competition in learning
• Cooperative learning is the instructional sue of small groups through which student s work together to maximize their own and other’s learning (Johnson, et. al 1994)
• LEARNING ADVANTAGES: (McGoarty, 1989) o Increased frequency & variety of 2nd
language practice through different types of interaction
o Possibility for development or use of language in ways that support cognitive development and increased language skills o Opportunities to integrate language with
content-base instruction
o Opportunities include a greater variety of curricular materials to stimulate language as well as concept learning
o Freedom for teachers to master new professional skills
o Opportunities for students to act as resource for each other
• “Content is the share of departure or
organizing principle of the course- a feature that grows out of common underlying
assumption that successful language learning occurs when students are presented with target language material in a meaningful, contextualized form with the primary focus on acquiring information” (Brinton, et. al Wesche, 1989)
• People learn a second language most successfully when the information they are acquiring is perceived as interesting, useful &
leading to a desired goal
• Some content areas are more useful as a basis for language learning than other
• Students learn best when instruction addresses student’s needs
• Teaching builds on the previous experience of the learners
DESIGN and
OBJECTIVES • Designed to foster cooperation rather than competition
• Develop critical thinking skills
• To develop communicative competence through socially structures interaction activities
• Objectives in a typical CBI course are stated as objectives of a content course with the exception of theme-based instructional models for CBI
SYLLABUS • Does not assume any particular form of language syllabus
• Derived from the content area, and vary in detail and format
TEACHING/
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
• TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING (Johnson, et. al., 1994)
o Formal Cooperative Learning Groups- established for a specific tasks & involve students working together to achieve shared learning goals
o Informal Cooperative Learning Groups- used to focus attention or facilitate learning during direct teaching
o Cooperative Base Groups-primary purpose is to allow members to give each other the support, help & encouragement, and assistance they need to succeed academically
• KEY ELEMETS OF SUCCESSFUL GROUP-BASED LEARNING: (Olsen & Kagan, 1992)
o Positive Interdependence- occurs when group members feel that what helps one
• ACCRDNG to INST. FOCUS (Stoller, 1997) o Language skills improvement
o Vocabulary building o Discourse organization o Communicative interaction o Study skill
o Synthesis of content materials and grammar
• UNIVERSAL STRUCTURES (Mohan, 1986) o Description
o Sequence o Choice
o Concepts/classification o Principles
o Evaluation
member helps all and what hurts one member hurts all; build mutual support within the group
o Group Formation- important factor in creating positive interdependence (deciding on the size of the group, assigning students to groups & student roles in groups) o Individual Accountability- involves both
groups & individual performance;
determine the way students interact with each other as teammates
o Structuring and Structures- refers to ways of organizing students interaction &
different ways students are to interact
• COOPERATIVE LEARNING TASKS (Coelho, 1992) o Team practice from common input-skills
development & mastery of facts
o Jigsaw: differentiated but pre-determined input-evaluation & synthesis of facts &
opinions
o Cooperative projects: topics/resources selected by students- discovery learning LEARNER
ROLES • Member of a group who must work collaboratively on tasks with other group members
• Directors of their own learning
• Become autonomous so they come to
“understand their own learning process and…take charge of their own learning from the very start” (Stryker & Leaver, 1993)
• Active interpreters of input
• Willing to explore alternative learning strategies and to seek multiple
interpretations of oral and written text
• May be sources of content and joint participants in the selection of topics and activities
• Committed to this new kind of approach to language learning
TEACHER
ROLES • Create a highly structures & well-organized learning environment in classroom, setting goals, planning & structuring tasks, establishing the physical arrangement of the classroom, assigning to groups & roles, selecting materials
• Facilitation of learning
• Must be knowledgeable in the subject matter and able to elicit knowledge from their students
• Keep context and comprehensibility foremost in planning and presentation
• Responsible for selecting and adapting authentic materials for use in class
• Become student needs analysts
• Create truly learner-centered classroom ROLE OF INST.
MATERIALS • May be specifically designed for CLL learning, modified from existing materials or borrowed from other disciplines
• “Textbooks are contrary to the very concept of CBI- and good language teaching in general” (Stryker & Leaver, 1993)
• Need modification in order to ensure maximum comprehensibility
• COURSE IN UNIVERSITY LEVEL:
o Theme-Based Language Instruction- syllabus are organized around themes or topics
o Sheltered Content Instruction- content course taught in the second language by content area specialist
o Adjunct Language Instruction- students are enrolled in two linked course, one a content course and one a language course o Team-Teach Approach- subject and
language teacher working together in preparing the syllabus
o Skill-Based Approach- focus on specific academic skill
• ELEMENTARY & SECONDARY LEVEL:
o Theme-Based Approach- designed to facilitate entry into regular subject-areas classroom, focus on learning the
mainstream curriculum
o Adjunct Approach- focused on preparing students to make the transition to learning science through English
PROCEDURE • • Linguistic analysis
• Preparation for film
• Viewing segment of the movie
• Discussion of the film
• Discussion of the reading
• Videotaped interview
• Discussion
• Preparation of articles
• Presentation of articles
• Wrap-up discussion OTHER
HIGHLIGHTS • •
CONCLUSION • Promotes learning through pairs or small groups
• Cooperative learning, group activities are the major mode of learning and are part of a comprehensive theory & system for the use of group work in teaching
• Has been extensively researched and evaluated and research finding generally supportive (Slavin, 1995; Baloche, 1998)
• Places considerable demands on teachers, who may have difficulty adapting to the new roles required of them
• Advocates claim that it leads to more
successful program outcomes than alternative language teaching approaches
• “In content based approach, the activities of the language class are specific to the subject being taught, and are geared to stimulate students to think and learn through the target language.” (Brinton, et al. 1989)
• Based on a set of broad principles that can be applied in many different ways and is widely used as the basis for many different kinds of successful language programs.
