List of Abbreviations
Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.3 Body Image
societal and cultural standards of ideal body and appearance. Additionally, social experiences also shape and re-shape body image (Paquette & Raine, 2004). Hence, body image is not static but a flexible and dynamic construct which may change due to contextual influences.
2.3.1 Dimensions of body image
According to Slade (1994), body image comprises of two components; (a) perceptual and (b) attitudinal. The perceptual component involves the accuracy of body’s size estimation and the attitudinal component involves the feelings and the degree of satisfaction towards one’s body and appearance.
Roy and Payette (2012) suggested four dimensions of body image. The attitudinal dimension refers to the liking or disliking of the body as a whole or some body parts.
The perceptual dimension relates to the degree of accuracy in judgments regarding body size. The behavioral dimension involves the behavioral measures adopted as a result of one’ own perceived body image, as well as, perception of others attitudes regarding the self’s body. The cognitive dimension involves the importance attributed to one’s body image in daily life.
Furthermore, Tucker (1981) identified the following domains: health and physical fitness, face and overall appearance, subordinate and independent body features, and physique and muscular strength. However, Tucker’s (1981) conceptualization is questioned due to the limited sample size (Mendelsen, Mendelson, & White, 2001).
Another effort to establish the multidimensionality of body image was initiated by Franzoi and Shields (1984) who suggested gendered domains of body image. That is, for men the relevant domains are physical attractiveness, upper body strength, and physical condition; whereas for females the important domains are sexual attractiveness,
weight concern, and physical condition. Further, Mendelson et al. (2001) identified three aspects of body image, that is, (a) general feelings about one’s appearance, (b) weight satisfaction, and (c) perceptions or attributions regarding other’s positive or negative evaluations about one’s body and appearance.
2.3.2 Empirical findings
Body image is largely conceptualized as a global construct across varied methods of measurements like self-reports, interviews and so on (Mendelsen et al., 2000;
Mendelsen et al., 1996). Desire to meet social beauty standards was related to low body image and body dissatisfaction (Grammas & Schwratz, 2009, Heinberg, 2001) which often led to unhealthy weight loss practices (Battle & Brownell, 1996) and eating disorders like anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa (Thomson, Heinberg, & Clarke, 2001).
Furthermore, body image dissatisfaction was linked to obesity (Thomson, 2001), depression (Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki III, & Cohane, 2004; Stice, Hayward, Cameron, Killen, & Taylor, 2000), low self-esteem (Olivardia et al., 2004, Kostanski &
Gullone, 1998) and other health and well-being related outcomes.
In case of females, there is an increasing portrayal of thinness as the ideal body standard which negatively impacts body image of females (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004).
However, Williams, Ricciardelli, McCabe, Waqa, & Bavadra, (2006) found out that preference for thin ideal is not always indicative of low body image. Often, the cultural construction of an ideal body is more influential and different cultural groups have different standards of ideal body (Ricciardelli, McCabe, Williams & Thompson, 2007).
Factors like body build, levels of acculturation, socio-economic status, media exposure, and internalization of the media portrayal of ideal body accounted for the different body image concerns across cultures (Ricciardelli et al., 2007). Additionally, Paquette and
Raine (2004) cited several internal factors like self-confidence, self-criticisms and the nature of perceived relationships with significant others; which mediated the effect of media portrayal on evaluations of self’s appearance. Additionally, personality dimension of neuroticism significantly predicted body dissatisfaction in both genders (Benford & Swami, 2014; Swami et al., 2013). Therefore, effect of media portrayal on body image concerns is influenced by other internal and external factors.
Compared to females, the media influence on body image of men is not as widely studied (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004; Pope et al., 2000). It might be due to findings suggesting females to be more susceptible to pursue media influence on body image (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004). However, body dissatisfaction and low body image is a widespread problem prevalent across gender (Cash, 2001). Higher influence of media portrayal on evaluations of physical appearance was significantly related to negative outcomes like body dissatisfaction and resultant depression, eating disorders, low self- esteem, unhealthy use of steroids in males (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004; Olivardia et al., 2004).
Findings reported older men to be more satisfied with their bodies than women (Reboussin et al., 2000. Furthermore, men across age reported greater body satisfaction than women (Homan & Boyatzis, 2009; Peat, Peyerl, & Muehlenkamp, 2008). While in case of women, body image satisfaction increased with age (Oberg & Tornstam, 1999).
Obesity has been linked to body dissatisfaction (Schwartz & Brownell, 2004). Studies indicated that even normal weight individuals are often dissatisfied with their bodies and reported low body image (Schieman, Pudrovska, & Eccles, 2007, Ricciardili et al., 2007; Williams et al., 2006, Allaz, Bernstein, Van Nes, Rouget, & Morabia, 1998).
The body image construct had also been studied in the context of acculturation.
Acculturating groups undergo emotional and identity issues dealing with distinct cultural identities which often get manifested as body dissatisfaction and low body image (Ivezaj et al., 2010; Ricciardili et al., 2007). Often, acculturative stress and ethno- racial discrimination led to the reported low body image in the migrant groups (Mitchell
& Mazzeo, 2004; Swami, Mada, & Tovée, 2012). Researchers linked ethnic and racial identity to low body image (Henrickson 2006; Mitchell & Mazzeo, 2004). Furthermore, studies related higher assimilation to low body image (Henrickson, Crowther, &
Harrington, 2010) in ethnic minority communities (Pender, 2009; Mussap, 2009).
Although, the initial research focus on body image was limited to clinically assessing the pathologies related to body experiences like anorexia, bulimia; however, currently a wide range of areas are covered by body image research including issues of burn victims, persons with disability, experiences of athletes, media influence, plastic surgery, acculturation, ethnic and physiognomic discrimination, social identity and so on (Cash, 2004).