In India and surrounding countries, the desi types are used whole, shelled and split to produce dhal, or ground into fine flour called besan. Besan is used in many ways for cooking, for example, mixed with wheat flour to make roti or chapatti, and for making sweets and snacks. It is also used as a vegetable.
Traditionally, chickpea is one of the most favoured of all pulses in Indian society. It is consumed in north, west, east and south of India, in tribal areas, villages and cities – everywhere chickpea has found a place in the daily diet.
During cropping season green leaves are used as a vegetable, fully developed green pods are used in vegetable dishes, rice and pulav, and some are roasted with salt. After harvesting and threshing, dried seeds are used for the prepa- ration of dhal, which has an attractive yellow colour, and is used in various preparations. From dhal, a yellow flour known as besan is prepared, and both dhal and flour are used in various preparations. Chickpea dhal blends well with vegetables, meat and sauces, and can be used to make a main course and snack items. Considering its wide uses in every home as well as on a commer- cial scale, its acceptability in Indian society is universal. The major and direct methods of processing are detailed below.
Methods of utilization
Consumption of besan is most common in India, followed by consump- tion as dhal, and the least preferred preparation is as whole grain. In other Asian countries, dhal is the most preferred form followed by whole grain.
In Europe and North America, most of the consumption of chickpea is as whole grain.
Several traditional processing practices are still used to convert chickpea into a consumable form. These processes include soaking, sprouting, ferment- ing, boiling, steaming, roasting, parching and frying. Some important food products based on these methods of preparation are listed in Table 4.2.
Green leaves as vegetable
In Indian villages and rural areas where chickpea is cultivated, people collect the top portion of vegetative plants for cooking. These green leaves are washed and cut into small pieces, mixed with green leaves of Brassica,Chenopodium andMelilotus alba and cooked for 30–40 min at high temperature. The prepa- ration is then mixed with maize flour, salt, chillies and spices and eaten as green vegetable known as saag in Hindi (J. Kumar, New Delhi, 2006, personal communication). It is very tasty and healthy. Farmers also chop the top portion of a standing crop and sell it in nearby markets. Early planting of chickpea is a common practice in dry areas; when the crop is about 35 days old, they allow sheep and goats into chickpea fields and get good money out of it.
Green pods and seeds
Green immature chickpea pods harvested a week or two before they mature are consumed as snacks. Sometimes the whole plant is roasted, the pods then shelled and consumed. Some people separate pods from plants and green seeds from pods, and then roast and consume them. Green seeds are also used as vegetable and for pulav. The green seeds separated from pods have less starch and protein, and more sugars than the mature form. They are easily digested, even when raw. This is predominant mostly in the areas of chickpea cultivation.
However, green harvested crop is also marketed in big cities by farmers and traders. Curries are also made of fresh green seeds, dried whole seeds and dhal, and are eaten with bread (Pushpamma and Geervani, 1987).
Uses of sprouted whole seed
In the Indian subcontinent, use of sprouted chickpea as breakfast is a very old prac- tice due to the belief that it controls diabetic and cardiological problems. Sprouted chickpea is used in small quantities along with salt, coriander leaves, tomato, onion, garlic and lemon juice. It is slightly sweet due to hydrolysis of the starch. It
Table 4.2. Some important preparations of chickpea around the world. (From Janbunathan and Umaid Singh, 1990.)
Food Component Method Country
Dhal Decorticated dry split Boiled in water to a soft Bangladesh, cotyledons consistency, fried with India, Nepal
spices and consumed and Pakistan
with cereals
Chhole Whole seed Prepared and consumed Afghanistan, similar to above Bangladesh,
India, Iran and
Pakistan
Pakora Besan (dhal fl our) Besan is fried in oil and Egypt, India, Iran, consumed as a snack Pakistan and
Sudan
Kadi Besan Besan is boiled with Indian
butter milk and used subcontinent
as curry
Unleavened bread Whole seed/besan Chickpea fl our is mixed Ethiopia, India, with wheat fl our and Pakistan and roti is prepared Syria Kiyit injera Whole seed Fermented Ethiopia Roasted Whole seed Grains are heated at Afghanistan,
245–250°C for 2 min Ethiopia, India, Iraq, Iran and
Nepal
Homos-Bi-tehineh Whole seed Soaked, boiled and Egypt, Jordan, mixed with other Lebanon, Syria, ingredients Tunisia and
Turkey
Tempeh Decorticated split seed Fermented product Canada and the
USA
Leblebi Whole seed Boiled in water with Jordan, Tunisia salt and pepper and Turkey
Dhokla Besan Fermented with green India
gram fl our
Salad Whole seed Boiled in water and Australia, served with other Canada,
vegetables Mexico, Spain
and the USA Green immature Whole green seed Raw, salted or roasted Ethiopia, India,
seeds Iran, Nepal,
Pakistan and
Sudan
may be boiled and used directly or dried in the shed, roasted and powdered before use, which is known as malting. It is used preferentially in infant feeding mixtures.
Generally, in this process chickpea seeds are washed and soaked in water for 5–6 h at room temperature. After washing, all the seeds are kept in a fine cot- ton cloth for 24–48 h at room temperature for sprouting. During this time healthy seeds will start to germinate. Germinated and sprouted seeds are washed and mixed with other vegetables and consumed as breakfast.
Uses for parching purposes
In the Indian subcontinent, the dry whole seeds are frequently used for parch- ing purposes. In this process, large-seeded cultivars are prepared. Seeds are soaked in water for 4–6 h for imbibition and sun-dried for 1 day. After proper drying, the seeds are mixed with pure hot sand in a big pot over fire for a few minutes. The testa of the seeds cracks and cotyledons become very soft.
Sometimes seeds are coloured with turmeric and salted for taste before being put on the fire. Approximately 5–10% of total chickpea production in India is utilized for this process. The parched seeds are used throughout India.
Soaked and boiled
Mostly in villages, the dried whole seeds are soaked in water for 8–10 h and then boiled for 25–30 min. Sometimes they are fried in oil with salt and lemon juice, and onion is added before eating. In this process, seeds become soft and tasty. This preparation can be performed at any time.
Soaked and puffed
Another popular method of processing chickpea is puffing. This is largely a com- mercial process and requires high temperature. For puffing, the seeds are sprin- kled heavily with water or salt water, allowed to remain damp for about 5 min, and roasted with hot sand at 240–250°C for 1–2 min. In puffing, the husk loosens rapidly and is removed by winnowing. Puffed chickpea is light and ready to eat.
Sometimes puffed chickpea is powdered and used in vegetable dishes as a garnish or made into brittles with sugar (Table 4.3) (Pushpamma and Geervani, 1987).
Vegetables
In the Indian subcontinent, chickpea is frequently used as a special vegetable with rice, fried purées (a kind of bread) and samosas. This usage peaks at dif- ferent times with religious occasions and weddings. In this process the whole seed is soaked in water for 6–8 h and then boiled for 30–40 min.Various spices, chillies, onions and tomatoes are also added to this preparation, which has a very special flavour and an excellent taste.
Table 4.3. Form of consumption of chickpea in different countries. (From Pushpamma and Geervani, 1987.)
Legume form/process
description Types of product Countries Fresh immature green
pods
Boiled (5–10 min) Salted India, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan and Sudan Roasted (5–10 min) Pod walls removed Ethiopia, India,
Pakistan and Peru Whole seed
Soaked (4–6 h) and Seasoned and served alone or with Greece, India, Iran boiled (20–30 min) vegetable purée or served as salad and Italy
with salt and lemon juice
Soaked (2–3 h) and Italy, North Africa
steamed (10 min) 15 lb and Spain
Soaked (4–6 h) and Seasoned (salted) and boiled, or Nepal and India germinated (24 h) seasoned, dried and roasted
Soaked (10–15 min) Dehusked Indian subcontinent and puffed
(240–250°C) (2–3 min)
Soaked in salt solution Consumed with husk Indian subcontinent,
and puffed West Asia and North
(240–250°C) (2–3 min) Africa
Soaked (10–15 min) and Coated with hot sugar syrup and Ethiopia, West Asia puffed (240–250°C) consumed as snack and North Africa (2–3 min)
Dhal
Boiled (25–30 min) Mashed and used as plain dhal Ethiopia and Indian
(until very soft) subcontinent
or
Steamed (10 min) Mashed and used as purée, soup India combined with jaggery and used as fi lling for sweets
Boiled with vegetable/ Curries Indian subcontinent green leafy vegetable/ and Turkey meat of soft
consistency (15–20 min)
Steamed with vegetable/ Curries Indian subcontinent, meat (soft) (15–20 min) turkey, West Asia
and North Africa Boiled and mashed, Homos-Bi-tehineh consumed with West Asia
seasoned with olive Arabic bread oil and lime
Boiled, mashed and Consumed as beverage with sugar India cooked with milk
Roasted (130–150°C) Powdered dry, and wet-ground with India (5 min) spices and used
Continued
Dhal
The marketing and consumers’ demand for dhal has created a niche for big business in the Indian subcontinent. In this process, whole seeds are soaked in water to increase their water content to ~25–30%. After this, they are dried to lower the moisture percent to ~15–17%. Then they are dehusked and split. After splitting, the cotyledons are coated with water or oil for shine and coloration.
This entire process is essential for making dhal.
Dhal has a special advantage over the whole seed in that it needs no soak- ing before boiling, as it has no husk, and can be cooked in a few minutes. It is cooked until tender, soft or very soft, depending on the desired texture of the finishing product. If dhal is to be served as a vegetable with green leafy veg- etables and meat, it is cooked until tender. If it is required to be mashed, it is cooked until soft. Dhals are sometimes pressure-cooked to reduce the cooking time even further (Pushpamma and Geervani, 1987).
Mashed dhal is used in soups and thin sauces. Boiled dhal may be ground with jaggery (unrefined sugar) and used as filling of snacks. If a sweet bever- age is desired, boiled dhal can be mashed and cooked with milk and sugar.
Chickpea is the only pulse that blends well with jaggery and is the most popular pulse for use in preparing sweets and desserts (Table 4.3).
Roasted dhal is popular in the Indian subcontinent. It can be powdered or ground with water and combined with ground spices. Such a ground mix- ture can be made either with a single pulse or with the combination of oth- ers. Because of its strong aroma, roasted dhal is more frequently used than other legumes in preparing such mixtures (chutneys). These chutneys are used as adjuncts to boiled rice. Dhal is used to make snacks. The soaked dhal Table 4.3. Continued
Legume form/process
description Types of product Countries
Soaked (4 h) Ground coarsely, dough fl attened Indian subcontinent, and deep-fried West Asia and North
Africa
Fried and salted Indian subcontinent Cooked in sugar syrup and set Indian subcontinent
into crystalline product Flour
Batter (thin) Pancakes Nepal, Afghanistan
and Indian
subcontinent
Covering/binding for cutlets Indian subcontinent Used for thickening gravies Indian subcontinent Batter (thick) Fermented, steamed and garnished Indian subcontinent Dough Extruded into different shapes, Indian subcontinent
pakoda or noodle shape, and fried and Iran
Fried in irregular shapes, or into Indian subcontinent
circles and Iran
is ground coarsely and made into patties and deep-fried. Plain dhal is also soaked and deep-fried, salted and consumed. These two fried products are very popular snacks in both rural and urban communities (Pushpamma and Geervani, 1987).
Chickpea flour as besan
In the Indian subcontinent, chickpea flour or besan is very popular. It has a big market and there is more consumer choice. Traditionally, dhal is converted into flour or besan in flour mills. This flour is of different categories like very fine flour, medium fine and rough or coarse, and is used for different purposes. Flour products can be made quickly. Flour is used in preparations of various kinds of fast food, snacks (pakoras), sweets (ladoos and burfis) and driads like bhoojya.
Satoo is a favourite drink used in summer. It is made by mixing roasted chick- pea flour with roasted barley and wheat flour. Dhokla, another famous item, is also made of chickpea flour with rice, fermented overnight and steamed. It is very popular and consumed in different parts of India mostly as breakfast.
Chickpea flour can be made into dough, extruded into different shapes and deep-fried. These fried products are served as snacks in canteens, restaurants and fast-food centres (Pushpamma and Geervani, 1987).
Pakoras
Chickpea flour is mixed with water and a semi-liquid paste is prepared. Various vegetables such as spinach, onion, potato, chilli, brinjal and cabbage can be mixed with this paste and fried in vegetable oil to prepare different pakoras.
These pakoras are tasty and popular in the Indian subcontinent. Pakora prepa- rations and eating habits are now spreading to European countries, the USA, Australia and China.
Chickpeachapatti or bread
Chickpea-based chapatti or bread is very popular in Indian villages and cities.
Throughout India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka, these are made of chickpea flours mixed with wheat in various ratios as per the taste of the individual family, e.g. 1:1, 1:3 and 1:5. Sometimes pure chickpea chapattis are served in hotels and restaurants in the cities, mostly as a special item during lunch and dinner.
Chickpea as animal feed
In rural areas in the Indian subcontinent, the farming community keeps draft animals for agricultural work like land preparation, planting, loading and
unloading, irrigation work, threshing, sugarcane crushing and land levelling.
Animals are also reared for the dairy and for meat. For all these animals, green fodder, straw and grain concentrate are essential. People in rural areas are well aware that the animals are essential for their productive agriculture and family support. Thus, the developing community increasingly recognizes the many links between human health and the practice and products of agriculture. The educated progressive farmers are now pursuing opportunities for using these links to achieve more productive agriculture and better health, as they under- stand that healthy agriculture leads to healthy people. Therefore, the farmers provide healthy feeds to their valuable animals. Legume concentrate in general and chickpea in particular are excellent feeds for such animals.
Animal feed includes various legumes, but chickpea concentrate is most popular among villagers. There are different kinds of feed like chickpea by- products and whole-chickpea products.
Chickpea by-products
These by-products are the remaining materials when a main fine product like dhal or flour is prepared. During such preparations whole chickpea seeds are dehusked in processing plants, thus removing the seed coat. While dehusking, some small portion of seed is also broken. Dehusking the large-seeded variety is better than for small-seeded ones, as the broken material is less in percent- age when compared with small-seeded varieties. These small broken pieces are mixed with the separated seed coat and used as animal feed in many villages.
The cost of this mixed feed is approximately $25–30/q.
This mixed feed is rich in protein, calcium, iron, zinc and fibre. It improves animal health, productivity and vitality. In milking animals, daily milk-producing capacity increases significantly.
Whole-seed product
Whole-seed chickpea products are also very popular, and flour or split chick- pea after soaking in water are used as animal feed. The percentage of such feed- ing is currently lower due to high prices in the market. However, in both the products ~10% of total chickpea production is used as animal feed.
Direct consumption of whole grain (kabuli type)
The whole kabuli-type seeds, which are preferred for direct human consump- tion, come from Mexico followed by Australia, Iran and Turkey. The most pre- ferred quality attributes are seed size, colour, good taste and thin seed coat in that order. Prices range from $500 to $950/q depending upon seed size.
Direct consumption of whole grain (desi type)
Desi chickpea consumers prefer golden yellow, soft and light seeds, which taste good. Locally produced desi chickpea is preferred, but imports from Myanmar
are also accepted as they are of similar quality. There is wide variation in prices in terminal markets, which is mainly influenced by short-term demand and supply. But in general, price ranges from $350 to $500/q.
Consumption
There is a well-known proverb that healthy agriculture produces healthy peo- ple and healthy people belong to healthy nations. The nutritional richness of legumes was recognized prehistorically, and people converted from the non- vegetarian to the vegetarian dietary system in the Indian subcontinent. Various pulses, which are excellent sources of energy to humans, animals and other living organisms, have been reported and documented in the earliest literature of Indian origin for their unique and nutritional values. Therefore, legume cul- tivation in general and chickpea in particular was established prehistorically in this region.
The average pulse consumption is about 27 g/person/day in rural India. The major pulse-consuming states are Uttar Pradesh (35 g/person/day), Maharashtra (32.7 g/person/day) and Karnataka (31.7 g/person/day), whereas less consump- tion was reported in Orissa (15 g/person/day), Kerala (15.3 g/person/day) and West Bengal (15.3 g/person/day). On the other hand, the major chickpea- consuming states are Punjab, Harayana, Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh (Reddy, 2004). This shows a wide diversity in the consumption of pulse crops in terms of quantity and variety among different states.
A case study of Maharashtra during 1993–1994 showed that pulse con- sumption was less among the poor (32 g/person/day) compared to the rich (54 g/person/day); less among schedule casts (38 g/person/day) compared to others (43 g/person/day); and also less among landless and marginal farmers
Table 4.4. Status of nutrient intake and population defi cient in intake in rural Maharashtra during 1993–1994. (From Richard and Kumar, 2002.)
Consumption of pulses Protein intake Percent of Social group (g/capita/day) (g/capita/day) population defi cient Income group
Very poor 32 57 32
Moderately poor 40 60 14
Non-poor-lower 45 73 9
Non-poor-higher 54 87 3
Social group
Scheduled tribe 43 66 21
Scheduled caste 38 68 18
Others 43 71 15
Landholding class
Landless 41 65 59
Continued