In the early stages of fluid flow analysis, the primary approach to study turbulent flow was experimental. Later on with the emergence of computer and different computational techniques, the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) became an
important tool for analyzing turbulent flows. In CFD techniques, the governing equations that are derived from the conservation laws of mass, momentum and energy are set over a physical domain along with the boundary conditions describing the fluid flow. These equations are then solved numerically to generate the pressure and velocity fields in the flow domain. The Navier-Stokes equations which are derived from the conservation of momentum consist of the nonlinear partial differential equations with an intricate dependency on velocity components within the system of equations. Apart from some specific cases, these partial differential equations are not solvable using analytical methods. There are only a very small number of flows that permits simplification of the governing equations in such a way that it is possible to obtain an analytical solution. Consequently for most cases, one is required to solve the Navier-Stokes equations numerically. The highest level of reliability in numerical simulation is given by Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS) and Large Eddy Simulations (LES). Numerical simulations performed using Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) solvers are, apart from being numerical approximations, also affected by physical approximations in the models due to averaging of different length scales in the turbulence field. We will discuss these methods briefly in the following sections.
1.2.1 DNS
The most accurate approach to turbulence simulations is to solve the Navier-Stokes equations without averaging or approximation other than numerical discretisation whose errors can be estimated and controlled. But the limitations of the computational resources (storage capacity and speed) restrict the use of direct numerical simulation (DNS) in many practical flow problems. For DNS, the grid to be used must be fine enough to resolve the smallest eddies whose sizes are of the order of Kolmogorov length scale, (ν3/ε)1/4, where ν is the kinematic viscosity and ε the rate of dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy. Therefore the number of grid points required in DNS is very high and this number increases with the Reynolds number. The limitations and scope of the DNS were discussed by Kim et al. (1997) considering the flow in a channel. They observed that to simulate the problem with a Reynolds number of 3300 (a value considerably less than that relevant to the practical
applications) based on the centerline mean velocity and channel half width, one needs to use two million grid points in the computational domain. The large number of grid points lead to complexity in the data handling and storage while performing DNS. It is believed that unless a higher speed and more storage capacity computer than the existing ones are not developed, the DNS for flow configurations and Reynolds number of practical problems will not be feasible in the near future.
1.2.2 LES
In large-eddy simulations (LES), the large-scale motions are resolved and the small scales, termed as the subgrid scales are modeled. This approach is based on the idea that the large-scale motions are highly dependent on the boundary conditions whereas the small scale motions are relatively universal everywhere. The equations are filtered in space and the division into the large and small-scale motions is dependant on the length of the filter. The numbers of grid points needed in LES is much less than that in DNS. The accuracy of LES largely depends upon the modeling of the subgrid scales, resulting from filtering the time-dependent Navier-Stokes equations which are based on the assumption of isotropy of the smallest scales. LES is comparatively more expensive than the RANS modeling. The RANS modeling and LES can be combined and this approach is called hybrid RANS/LES or detached eddy simulation (DES). In this approach RANS is used to model the flow in the near-wall region, which requires less resolution as compared to resolving the boundary layer vortices with LES.
Further away the LES is used to resolve the turbulence (Dahlstrom, 2003).
1.2.3 RANS Models
For engineering applications, it is unaffordable to treat the time-dependant Navier- Stokes equations directly as excessively demanding computational resources are needed for DNS. This is true to some extent even for LES. Thus a suitable approximation of the time dependant Navier-Stokes equation has to be taken.
Reynolds (1895) proposed that the quantities ( )ψ in the Navier-Stokes equation could be divided into a mean ( )ψ and a fluctuating part (ψ′):
ψ =ψ +ψ′
where the mean part is the time-average of a parameter over a certain time. The averaging time needs to be longer than the small turbulence fluctuations, however shorter than any mean flow oscillating period. If Reynolds decomposition is applied to the Navier-Stokes equation the result is an equivalent set of equations, termed as the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations. The time averaging procedure however produces additional terms, the Reynolds stresses (ui′u′j ), which are unknown and need to be modeled using a suitable turbulence model. This is referred as the closure problem with the Reynolds averaging. There are two distinct approaches to model the Reynolds stresses, either the eddy-viscosity models (EVM), or the Reynolds stress transport (RST) models. In the latter case the actual stresses are solved, while in the former the Boussinesq eddy-viscosity hypothesis (Hinze, 1975) is employed to estimate the Reynolds stresses. The eddy viscosity hypothesis of Boussinesq results in a first-order closure of the system of the governing equations. A suitable turbulence model is used to provide the eddy viscosity to the RANS equations. The RANS equations represent transport equations for the mean flow quantities only, with all the scales of the turbulence being modeled. The approach of permitting a solution for the mean flow variables greatly reduces the computational effort compared to DNS or LES.
In the past, several kinds of first-order closure turbulence models have been devised. The class of zero-equation or algebraic models are those proposed by Baldwin and Lomax (1978), Cebeci and Smith (1974). The turbulence models are categorized by the number of transport equations employed in addition to the momentum equations. The most widely used one-equation turbulence model has been developed by Spalart and Allmaras (1992), which is a relatively simple model that solves a modeled transport equation for the eddy viscosity. Two-equation turbulence models in general are built mostly from the transport equation for the turbulence kinetic energy and a suitable second transport equation. The k-ε model is the one most commonly used and this is one of the simplest two-equation models in which the solution of two separate transport equations allows the turbulence velocity and length scales to be independently determined. The velocity and the length scales are determined from the transport equation of turbulence kinetic energy and the dissipation rate of the turbulence kinetic energy. The model has become the workhorse of practical engineering flow calculations since the time it was proposed
by Launder and Spalding (1972). Robustness, economy, and reasonable accuracy for a wide range of turbulent flows explain its popularity in industrial flow and heat transfer investigations. Another important two-equation model is the k−ωmodel developed by Wilcox (1998). In this model the length scale is determined from the specific rate of the turbulence dissipation rate (ω). Both the models use the assumption of the isotropic turbulence viscosity, even though this is not strictly consistent with the anisotropic nature of the turbulence structure of the flow field.
Still, as far as the prediction of the global parameters such as the pressure drops is concerned, the two equation models have proven to be adequately accurate. If further details of the flow field are desired, these models could still be used with some modifications.
In Reynolds stress transport (RST) models, the eddy viscosity approach is not used and the closure of the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations is obtained by solving transport equations for the Reynolds stresses, together with an equation for the dissipation rate (2nd-order accurate). This means that five additional transport equations are required in case of two-dimensional (2D) flows and seven additional transport equations must be solved in case of the three-dimensional (3D) flows. Since the RST model accounts for the effects of streamline curvature, swirl, rotation, and rapid changes in the strain rate, in a more rigorous manner than one-equation and two- equation models, it has good potential to provide accurate predictions for complex flows. However, the reliability of RST model predictions is still limited by the closure assumptions employed to model various terms in the exact transport equations for the Reynolds stresses. The modeling of the pressure-strain and dissipation-rate terms is particularly challenging, and often considered to be responsible for compromising the accuracy of RST model predictions. The RST model might not always yield results that are clearly superior to the simpler models in all classes of flows to warrant the additional computational expense. However, the use of the RST model is recommended when the flow features of interest are the result of anisotropy in the Reynolds stresses. Among the examples are cyclone flows, highly swirling flows in combustors, rotating flow passages, and the stress-induced secondary flows in ducts.