Note
3.2 Coping with the Continuum
3.2.2 Evolution of defi nitions
The pivotal 1960s conference on man-made forests (FAO, 1967) adopted origin as the basis of classifi cation of broad forest types. And with minor variants this remained in place for the next 30 years.
However, planted forests may be classifi ed in several ways, e.g. by their spe- cies composition, their scale, their complexity, the functions they perform or the purpose for which they are planted (Evans, 1999). Before FRA 2005, for defi ni- tions relevant to resource assessment see FAO (2001) and Carle and Holmgren (2003). (For a discussion of defi nitions relevant to climate change and carbon sequestration see Noble et al., 2000). The key issue that became the focus of defi nitions was that of management intensity. The point being that although planted forests are frequently managed intensively for wood production, they can also be managed less intensively for conservation, protection or other socio- economic purposes. Thus FAO (2001) defi ned plantation as: ‘Forest stands established by planting or/and seeding in the process of afforestation or refor- estation. They are either:
introduced species (all planted stands), or
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intensively managed stands of indigenous species, which meet all the follow-
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ing criteria: one or two species at plantation, even age class, regular spacing.’
Table 3.1. CIFOR typology of forest plantations and defi nitions.
Typology Description
Industrial plantation Intensively managed forest stands established to provide material for sale locally or outside the immediate region, by planting and/or seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation. Individual stands or compartments are usually with even age class and regular spacing and:
● of introduced species (all planted stands) and/or
● of one or two indigenous species
● usually either large scale or contributing to one of a few
● large-scale industrial enterprises in the landscape.
Home and farm plantations Managed forest, established for subsistence or local sale by planting and/or seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation, with even age class and regular spacing.
Usually small scale and selling, if at all, in a dispersed market.
Environmental plantation Managed forest stand, established primarily to provide environmental stabilization or amenity value, by planting and/or seeding in the process of afforestation or reforesta- tion, usually with even age class and regular spacing.
Managed secondary forest with planting
Managed forest, where forest composition and productivity is maintained through additional planting and/or seeding.
Managed secondary forest without planting
Managed forest, where forest composition and productivity is maintained through natural regeneration processes, which can include the use of seed trees.
Restored natural/secondary forest
Restored forest, through either planting and/or seeding, or through natural regeneration processes, where restoration aims to create a species mix and ecology approaching that of the original natural forest.
While this defi nition covered most situations, there remained the question of the meaning of ‘intensively managed’. It was intended to exclude stands estab- lished as plantations but now considered semi-natural because they have not been managed intensively for a signifi cant period. The FAO defi nition was not intended to replace existing national classifi cations because national inventories, terms and defi nitions have specifi c purposes of relevance for each country (FAO, 2001). There are many types of plantations, ranging from short-rotation indus- trial tree crops through to ‘close-to-nature’ plantations which vary in intensity of management and other management practices according to whether the objec- tives are to maximize wood production, environmental values, or some combi- nation of production and conservation objectives. Close-to-nature plantations are complex production systems using more than one species that may be une- venly aged, and several management practices, such as a mixture of coppice and standards, to provide a range of products and environmental services (Kanowski, 1997).
Thus the boundary between planted and natural forests can become very imprecise indeed. While consideration of origin is crucial, between the extremes of afforestation and unaided natural regeneration of indigenous forest, there is a range – a continuum – of forest conditions where intervention occurs to a greater or lesser extent in regeneration. In older typologies – systems of defi nitions – four broad forest types were, fi rstly, identifi ed by origin.
Afforestation is the act or process of creating forest land where it ‘historically’
1.
did not exist (Lund, 2000). Others have specifi ed the time factor as ‘where there has been no forest for at least 50 years’ (FAO, 1967) or ‘which previously did not carry forest within living memory’ (FAO, 2001). Afforestation of grasslands falls into this category (Fig. 3.1) as does planting to stabilize sand-dunes.
Reforestation is the act or process of changing previously deforested lands 2.
back to forest land (Lund, 2000). A distinction can be made on the basis of whether the previous crop is replaced by the same or a different crop. An ex- ample of the latter is where rain forest is logged, cleared and then part replanted with a single tree species such as Acacia mangium or Paraserianthes falcataria (Fig. 3.2). The former is less common in the tropics, though Araucaria cunning- hamii plantations in Queensland, Australia, some Triplochiton plantations in West Africa are examples. Common in temperate countries are oak (Quercus robur and Q. petraea) plantations in France, Germany and the UK and Douglas fi r (Pseudotsuga menziesii) planted in the USA’s Pacifi c North-West region and western Canada, where the previous forest is replaced by essentially the same species (Figs 2.2 and 3.3). Replanting was defi ned as the re-establishment of planted trees, either because afforestation or reforestation failed, or the tree crop was felled and regenerated (FAO, 2001).
Forests established by natural regeneration with deliberate silvicultural inter- 3.
vention and manipulation.
Forests that have regenerated naturally without human assistance, e.g. most 4.
natural forests in the tropics.
Up until FRA 2005, plantations are the forest types in classes 1 and 2 above, that is, artifi cial regeneration is the basic criterion.
Second, it was common to further differentiate between ‘industrial plantations’, which are established totally or partly to produce wood and fi bre for industry (mainly saw-logs, veneer logs, pulpwood and mining timbers) and ‘non-industrial’ planta- tions established for one or more of the following objectives: fuelwood, wood for Fig. 3.1. Afforestation of grassland with Pinus patula. Usutu Forest, Swaziland.
Fig. 3.2. Reforestation with a different species: Paraserianthes falcataria planted on recently cut-over rain forest in the Philippines.
charcoal, wood for domestic consumption, non-wood forest products and soil and water protection.
Third, in addition to their origin and the distinction between industrial and non-industrial, several other characteristics were presented as ‘associated with’
plantations. These include:
Well-managed plantations usually have higher yields of useful wood than
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natural forests. Many commercial plantations, whether in temperate regions or the tropics, have an annual growth rate in the range of 4–40 m3/ha compared with 1–10 m3/ha for natural forests on equivalent sites, i.e. productivities typically two to four times greater.
Plantations produce wood quickly and of a more uniform size and quality
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than that from natural forests. This facilitates harvesting, transport and conversion.
Plantations can be located wherever infrastructure and suitable land are
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available, and near to population centres or wood processing units, thereby making them more easily accessible and reducing transport costs.
Finally, it was noted that traditionally trees had also been planted for land- scape enhancement, prevention of soil erosion, providing shelter against heat and wind, and in agroforestry systems. Moreover, billions of trees planted in cities, on farms and along roads were not included in these defi nitions of ‘plan- tations’ and ‘forests’. These ‘trees outside the forest’ were not included in plan- tation statistics but nevertheless make a substantial contribution to the environment and provide signifi cant social and economic benefi ts. In Kenya Fig. 3.3. Reforestation by planting with essentially the same species:
Douglas fi r (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Pack Forest, Washington State, USA (planted semi-natural – Table 3.2).
trees on farms produced almost 10 million m3 of wood in 2000 and in some densely populated areas contributed 18–51% of total household incomes (FAO, 2001).
The above defi nitions led to a complex of inter-related terms that resulted in fuzzy thinking, confusion over meanings and lack of transparency.