32 Research Methdology themto other generalizations; in short, he wishes to create system of theory. Thus, in the early years of the scientific epoch, experiments with boiling water at low temperatures by varying pressure, and studieson the height of mercury columns as affected by the air pumps, not only were entertaining but led to some practical results.
Entertainment and practical usefulness were not, however, the only consequences of these studies. They were tests that had a bearing upon a body of learning conceijjpng vacuums and the weight of air.
Each test was part of the cumu process that is the growth of
science. The constant change induced in a science by this cumulative process results in the clarification of its generalizations through greater specificationof the conditions underwhich the generalizations hold. This development in turn increases the predictivepower of the science and divides the field into an ever-growing number of specialties, each of which is more abstractand further removed than its parent from the frame of reference of common sense.
THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN APPLIED AND PURE
Introduction
as a basis of choice in order to reduce turnover. The variable may determine community participation to some extent, or reaction to proposed changes in the neighborhood. Yet it has not received the systematic attention in theoretical sociology which it deserves. A concept may thus be developed in applied research and then be utilized further in theoretical research once its importance has been noted.
4. Applied research may integrate previously existing theory Problem solving typically draws upon many sciences, for the problem is concrete and cannot be solved by the application of abstract principles from a single science. Bridge construction, for example, may draw upon such disciplines as economics, hydrostatics, stress analysis, demography, chemistry, geology etc. "Slum clearance"
requires the data studied by the criminologist, the social worker, the sociologist, the economist, and others. Thus, the solution of a concrete problem may require some integration of the findings from many theoretical as well as applied investigations in several fields. The same principle must be applied, however, within sociology Studies of socialization may be used in planning for the interaction of children from different ethnic groups or in developing a program for adult education, in designing the pm ject that replaces the slum. Demographic data must be used to calculate the expected number of children in the schools and top community recreation. Studies of neighboring behavior, of the impact of physical location upon social interaction, of the bases for community participation may be used in laying out the building entrances or locating the community center.
These contributions maybe seen as the application of theoretical knowledge to specific problems. It must be seen, however, that we have a pattern, a total plan, and it must then be seen how these various factors interact with one another. For example, previous studies have shown that physical proximity is important in the fonnation of clique patterns, as are factors of class, ethnic group, religion, and so on. How do these principles operate wgether when the influence of each is in the same direction? In different directions? We may
36 Research Methdology
ask similar questions about the association of juvenile delinquency with such factors as income, education, association with fringe groups, or "broken" homes. This example is taken from housing research.
An analogous integration could be attempted in applied industrial research and other areas. We would then be trying to discover the weights to be given such factors, so as to be able to predict their total effects more accurately. Applied social research, then, can be useful in the actual integration of existing theory.
FROM THE SIDE OF "PURE" RESEARCH
1.By developing general principles
Theory offers solutions to many practical problems. The abstractness which removes a scientific generalization from ordinary experience also broader application. When we have ascertained the differential effects of various kinds of social backgrounds upon intellectual achievement in IQ tests,' we can apply these rough principles to the analysis of first grades made by Southern Negroes or by San Francisco Chinese-Americans. We can predict what will happen when these groups migrate to other areas, or when new opportunities are given them. We can interpret more easily the different achievements of class strata. Although these judgments are not so precise or so well established as, say, those relating to the interaction between air pressure, altitude, boiling points, etc., they are similar in that there are many practical applications. Indeed, it can be said that nothing is so practical for the goals of diagnosis or treatment as good theoretical research. Too often, in contrast, practical problem solving confines itself to the concrete immediacy, so that the result is not applicable elsewhere.
2. "PUre" research helps to find the central factors in a practical problem
All too often, those who adopt a common-sense approach see the problem in traditional ways and fail to abstract the key factors. As a consequence, the solution is likely to be an inefficient
37 one. For example, in an area torn by racial dissension, a playground director may "solve" the problem of gang fights between boys of different races by allotting different playground hours or days to the various gangs. This may "work," in the sense that the fights are avoided. However, since it fails to grapple with the causes of the tension and this outlet for it, the solution is inefficient andvery likely helps to maintain the existing situation.
On the other hand, by the development and application of general principles of social interaction, group morale and cohesion, socialization, and deflection of tension, it is possible to work out a solution that both avoids gang fights and integrates these different groups. Theoretical knowledge, then, can go beyond mere common
sense.
3. Research as an answer to problems may become a standard
procedure for the administrator
Pure research may have an effect upon the pattern of
administrative procedure, as the practitioner learns of its utility. This development has not been a common one, but both governmental and business organizations have begun to utilize "research and planning units" to evaluate the techniques which have been applied in the past and to develop new solutions to old as well as new problems.
Such a unit may be given considerable freedom in its investigations.
Large industrial corporations have, of course, used such units particularly in the biological and physical sciences. However, the utility of social-research units is obvious for both nonindustrial and industrial organizations, since problems of social relations are common to both. What is central to this development is the belief that problems should be anticipated where possible that traditional procedures may always be questioned, and that the development of fairly general principles can be a practical activity. Thus, the pattern of pure research has an effect upon the solution of practical problem in that its aims and procedures become the usual, long-term applied to the latter type of problem.
38 Research Methdology
4. Theoretical research develops many alternative solutions, with the result that alternative costs may be weighed and ultimately reduced
The solutions that theoretical research first develops are likely to be very expensive. Most of the applications of science which have become common in our civilizationthe radio, television, mechanical refrigeration, sun lampswere originally laboratory appliances, unwieldly, costly, and inefficient. The first isolation of elements or isotopes has almost invariably required a relatively large
expenditure of time and money. However, pure science
characteristically continues the investigation beyond a "workable"
solution to more precise generalizations, discoveiythe essential factors, and ascertainment of the exact conditions under which the process operates. Consequently, after a time there are many solutions for a given type of problem, with different main and subsidiary consequences.
We are thus pennitted to choose the best solution for our practical problem.
Because scientific sociology has had such a short history, the only acceptable examples of such multiple solutions must be taken from social research techniques. With each improvement in these techniques, we are able to solve practical social problems with considerably less waste. Developments in social theory have offered alternative solutions to such problems as juvenile delinquency, racial and ethnic assimilation, low production in office and factory, etc., but in general these are improvements over common sense, rather than over scientific generalizations that had previously been applied. However, as we learn to isolate important social factors and to clarify the lines of cause and effect, we may be able to develop out of theoretical sociology still more efficient answers to our practical problems.
This last point needs special emphasis because an increasing number of scientists are engaged in practical research. Consequently, there axe inciting opportunities for the sociologist to apply his knowledge to the concrete problems of the major social institutions. There is
39 an increasing amount of money for such research. Community councils, city governments, labor unions, business concerns, and various special interest groups will in the future underwrite still larger programs of sociological research. Their interest, however, is not in the growth of sociology but in the achievement of a practical solution.
Research is expensive, and funds are limited. The development of science could be greatly accelerated by such projects. The importance of this opportunity is heightened by the fact that there is relatively little money available for "pure" research. It should be repeated at this point, however, that in applied research the work tends to be limited, the problem defined, and the frame of reference of the researcher specified without regard to the goals of scientific theory.
When this occurs, we have an example of the possibly dangerous interference of personal values with science.
It is of vital importance that this danger be consciously recognized by the sociologist engaged in practical work. It need not handicap him so long as he designs his work within the scientific frame of reference as well as within the social-problem framework. The practicality of the results will in no way damage the scientific validity of work which is properly conceived and carried out.
The task for the student of sociology, then, is to develop his understanding of research design and techniques as well as his knowledge of sociological fact and theory. Whether he attempts
"pure" or "applied" research, this training is necessary. It is perhaps particularly crucial when he must thread his way through complex everyday problems in such a way that he will not only help to solve them but also contribute to scientific growth.