Phosphorus-based nutrient management regulations increase the amount of land required to dispose of manure, and that will have a detrimental effect on the economy in areas of intensive animal agriculture. Opportunities are now avail- able to reduce P excretion by ruminants by 25 to 40% by more accurate feed analysis and ration formulation, and more precise mixing and feeding of rations to meet the animals’ actual dietary P requirements. Reducing the P content of manure through nutrition is a powerful, cost-effective approach to reducing P losses from livestock farms.
References
reference to parturient paresis. Journal of Dairy Research 43, 501–520.
Braithwaite, G.D. (1983a) Calcium and phos- phorus requirements of the ewe during pregnancy and lactation. 1. Calcium. British Journal of Nutrition 50, 711–722.
Braithwaite, G.D. (1983b) Calcium and phos- phorus requirements of the ewe during pregnancy and lactation. 2. Phosphorus.
British Journal of Nutrition 50, 723–736.
Bravo, D., Meschy, F., Bogaert, C. and Sauvant, D.
(2002) Effects of fungal phytase addition, formaldehyde treatment and dietary con- centrate on ruminal phosphorus availability.
Animal Feed Science and Technology 99, 73–95.
Bravo, D., Meschy, F., Bogaert, C. and Sauvant, D. (2003) Phosphorus availability of oil- seed meals determined by the apparent faecal digestibility technique. Animal Feed Science and Technology 108, 43–60.
Breves, G. and Schröder, B. (1991) Compara- tive aspects of gastrointestinal phosphorus metabolism.Nutrition Research Reviews 4, 125–140.
Brintrup, R., Mooren, T., Meyer, U., Spiekers, H.
and Pfeffer, E. (1993) Effects of two levels of phosphorus intake on performance and faecal phosphorus excretion of dairy cows.
Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 69, 29–36.
Brodison, J.A., Goodall, E.A., Armstrong, J.D., Givens, D.I., Gordon, F.J., McCaughey, W.J. and Todd, J.R. (1989) Infl uence of dietary phosphorus on the performance of lactating dairy cattle. Journal of Agricultural Science112, 303–311.
Care, A.D. (1994) The absorption of phosphate from the digestive tract of ruminant animals.
British Veterinary Journal 150, 197–205.
Cerosaletti, P.E., Fox, D.G. and Chase, L.E.
(2004) Phosphorus reduction through precision feeding of dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science 87, 2314–2323.
Challa, J., Braithwaite, G.D. and Dhanoa, M.S.
(1989) Phosphorus homeostasis of growing calves. Journal of Agricultural Science 112, 217–226.
Clark, W.D.J., Wohlt, J.E., Gilbreath, R.L. and Zajac, P.K. (1986) Phytate phosphorus intake and disappearance in the gastroin-
testinal tract of high producing dairy cows.
Journal of Dairy Science 69, 3151–3155.
Cohen, R.D.H. (1975) Phosphorus and the grazing ruminant. An examination of the role of phosphorus in ruminant nutrition with particular reference to the beef cattle industry in Australia. Animal Production 11, 27–43.
Cromwell, G.L. (1992) The biological availabil- ity of phosphorus from feedstuffs. Pig News and Information 75N–78N.
Cromwell, G.L., Stahly, T.S., Coffey, R.D., Mon- egue, H.J. and Randolph, J.H. (1993) Ef- fi cacy of phytase in improving the bioavail- ability of phosphorus in soybean meal and corn–soybean meal diets for pigs. Journal of Animal Science 71, 1831–1840.
Czerkawski, J.W. (1976) Chemical composition of microbial matter in the rumen. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 27, 621–632.
Daniel, T.C., Sharpley, A.N. and Logan, T.J.
(1992) Effect of soil test phosphorus on the quality of the runoff water: research needs.
In:National Livestock, Poultry and Aqua- culture Waste Management. Proceedings of the National Workshop,Kansas City, Mo.
ASAE, St Joseph, Michigan, pp. 155–160.
Dijkstra, J., Neal, H.D.St C., Beever, D.E. and France, J. (1992) Simulation of nutrient digestion, absorption and outfl ow in the rumen: model description. Journal of Nu- trition 122, 2239–2256.
Dou, Z., Ferguson, J.D., Fiorini, J., Toth, J.D., Alexander, S.M., Chase, L.E., Ryan, C.M., Knowlton, K.F., Kohn, R.A., Peterson, A.B., Sims, J.T. and Wu, Z. (2003) Phosphorus feeding levels and critical control points on dairy farms. Journal of Dairy Science 86, 3787–3795.
Durand, M. and Kawashima, R. (1980) Infl u- ence of minerals in rumen microbial diges- tion. In: Rockerbush, Y. and Thivend, P.
(eds)Digestive Physiology and Metabolism in Ruminants. MTP Press, London, pp.
375–408.
Eckles, C.H., Gullickson, T.W. and Palmer, L.S.
(1932)Phosphorus Defi ciency in the Rations of Cattle. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin no. 91, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2001) National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit Regulation and Effl uent Limitation Guidelines and Standards for Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations:
Proposed Rule. 40 CFR Parts 122 and 412. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
Erickson, G.E., Klopfenstein, T.J., Milton, C.T., Hanson, D. and Calkins, C. (1999) Effect of dietary phosphorus on fi nishing steer performance, bone status, and carcass maturity. Journal of Animal Science 77, 2832–2836.
Fox, P.F. and McSweeney, L.R. (1998) Dairy Chemistry and Biochemistry. Blackie Aca- demic and Professional, London, 478 pp.
Georgievskii, V.I. (1982) The physiological role of macro elements. In: Georgievskii, V.I., Annenkov, B.N. and Samokhin, V.I. (eds) Mineral Nutrition of Animals. Butterworths, London, pp. 91–170.
Guyton, A.D., McKinney, J.M. and Knowlton, K.F. (2003) The effect of steam-fl aked or dry- ground corn and supplemental phytic acid on phosphorus partitioning and ruminal phytase activity in lactating cows. Journal of Dairy Science 86, 3972–3982.
Horst, R.L. (1986) Regulation of calcium and phosphorus homeostasis in the dairy cow.
Journal of Dairy Science 69, 604–616.
Hungate, R.E. (1966) The Rumen and its Microbes. Academic Press, New York, pp. 346–347.
INRA (Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique) (1989) Ruminant Nutrition:
Recommended Allowances and Feed Tables, Edited by R. Jarrige. John Libbey Euro- text, Paris, France.
Jongbloed, A.W., Lenis, N.P. and Mroz, Z.
(1997) Impact of nutrition on reduction of environmental pollution by pigs: an over- view of recent research. Veterinary Quar- terly 19, 130–134.
Kebreab, E. and Vitti, D.M.S.S. (2005) Mineral metabolism. In: Dijkstra, J., Forbes, J.M. and France, J. (eds) Quantitative Aspects of Ruminant Digestion and Metabolism. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 469–486.
Kebreab, E., Shah, M.A., Beever, D.E., Humphries, D.J., Sutton, J.D., France, J.
and Mueller-Harvey, I. (2005) Effects of contrasting forage diets on phos- phorus utilisation in lactating dairy cows.
Livestock Production Science 93, 125–
135.
Kebreab, E., Odongo, N.E., McBride, B.W., Hanigan, M.D. and France, J. (2008) Phosphorus utilization and environmen- tal and economic implications of reducing phosphorus pollution from Ontario dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 91, 241–246.
Kertz, A. (1998) Variability in delivery of nutri- ents to lactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 81, 3075–3084.
Kichura, T.S., Horst, R.L., Beitz, D.C. and Littledike, E.T. (1982) Relationship between prepartal dietary calcium and phosphorus, vitamin D metabolism, and parturient paresis in dairy cows. Journal of Nutrition 112, 480–487.
Kincaid, R.L. and Rodehutscord, M. (2005) Phosphorus metabolism in the rumen. In:
Pfeffer, E. and Hristov, A. (eds) Nitrogen and Phosphorus Nutrition of Cattle and the Environment. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 187–193.
Kincaid, R.L., Garikipati, D.K., Nennich, T.D.
and Harrison, J.H. (2005) Effect of grain source and exogenous phytase on phos- phorus digestibility in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 88, 2893–2902.
Knowlton, K.F. and Herbein, J.H. (2002) Phosphorus balance during early lactation in dairy cows fed diets varying in phos- phorus content. Journal of Dairy Science 85, 1227–1236.
Knowlton, K.F., Herbein, J.H., Meister-Weisbarth, M.A. and Wark, W.A. (2001) Nitrogen and phosphorus partitioning in lactating Hol- stein cows fed different sources of dietary protein and phosphorus. Journal of Dairy Science84, 1210–1217.
Knowlton, K.F., Radcliffe, J.S., Emmerson, D.A.
and Novak, C.L. (2004) Animal manage- ment to reduce phosphorus losses to the environment. Journal of Animal Science 82 (E. Suppl.), E173–E195.
Knowlton, K.F., Parsons, C.M., Cobb, C.W. and Wilson K.F. (2005) Exogenous phytase plus cellulase and phosphorus excretion in
lactating dairy cows. Professional Animal Scientist 21, 212–216.
Knowlton, K.F., Taylor, M.S., Hill, S.R., Cobb, C. and Wilson, K.F. (2007) Manure nutrient excretion by lactating cows fed exogenous phytase and cellulase. Journal of Dairy Science90, 4356–4360.
Koddebusch, L. and Pfeffer, E. (1988) Untersu- chungen zue VErwertbarkeit von Phosphor verschidener Herkunfte an laktierenden Ziegen.Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 60, 269–275.
Koelsch, R. and Lesoing, G. (1999) Nutrient balance on Nebraska livestock confi ne- ment systems. Journal of Animal Science 77 (Suppl. 2), 63–71.
Kornegay, E.T. and Qian, H. (1996) Replacement of inorganic phosphorus by microbial phytase for young pigs fed on a maize–
soyabean meal diet. British Journal of Nutrition 76, 563–578.
Lei, X.G., Ku, P.K., Miller, E.R., Yokoyama, M.Y.
and Ullrey, D.E. (1993) Supplementing corn soybean meal diets with microbial phytase maximum phytate phosphorus utilization by weanling pigs. Journal of Animal Science 71, 3369–3375.
Lopez, H., Kanitz, F.D., Moreira, V.R., Wiltbank, M.C. and Satter, L.D. (2004a) Effect of dietary phosphorus on performance of lactating dairy cows: milk production and cow health. Journal of Dairy Science 87, 139–146.
Lopez, H., Kanitz, F.D., Moreira, V.R., Satter, L.D. and Wiltbank, M.C. (2004b) Repro- ductive performance of dairy cows fed two concentrations of phosphorus. Journal of Dairy Science 87, 146–157.
Manitoba Conservation (2009) Environmental assessment. Available at http://www.gov.
mb.ca/conservation/eal/index.html.
Manitoba Livestock Manure Management Ini- tiative (MLMMI) (2009) Government Legis- lation and Programs. Available at http://
www.manure.mb.ca/legislation.php.
McDowell, L.R. (1992) Minerals in Animal and Human Nutrition. Academic Press, New York, 524 pp.
Meschy, F. (2000) Recent progress in the assess- ment of mineral requirements of goats.
Livestock Production Science 64, 9–14.
Milton, J.T.B. and Ternouth, J.H. (1985) Phosphorus metabolism in ruminants. II Effects of inorganic phosphorus concen- tration upon food intake and digestibility.
Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 36, 647–654.
Morse, D., Head, H.H. and Wilcox, C.J. (1992) Disappearance of phosphorus in phytate from concentrates in vitro from rations fed to lactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science75, 1979–1986.
Myers, Z.H. and Beede, D.K. (2008) Evaluating estimates of phosphorus maintenance re- quirement of lactating Holstein cows with different dry matter intakes. Journal of Dairy Science 92, 708–719.
National Research Council (NRC) (1978) Nutri- ent Requirements of Dairy Cattle, 5th edn.
National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
National Research Council (NRC) (1989) Nutri- ent Requirements of Dairy Cattle, 6th edn.
National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
National Research Council (NRC) (1996) Nu- trient Requirements of Beef Cattle, 7th edn.
National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
National Research Council (NRC) (2001) Nutri- ent Requirements of Dairy Cattle, 7th edn.
National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Negahban, G., Kiker, K., Campbell, K., Jones, J., Boggess, W., Fonyo, C. and Flaig, E. (1993) GIS-based hydrologic modeling for dairy runoff phosphorous management. In: Inte- grated Resource Management and Landscape Modifi cation for Environmental Protection.
Proceedings of the International Symposium.
ASAE St Joseph, Michigan, pp. 330–339.
Nelson, T.S., McGillivray, J.J., Shieh, T.R., Wodzinski, R.J. and Ware, J.H. (1968) Effect of phytate on the calcium requirement of chicks.Poultry Science 47, 1985–1989.
Odongo, N.E., Mcknight, D., Koekkoek, A., Fisher, J.W., Sharpe, P., Kebreab, E., France, J. and McBride, B.W. (2007) Long-term effects of feeding diet without mineral phosphorus supplementation on the per- formance and phosphorus excretion in high yielding dairy cows. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 87, 639–646.
Park, W.-Y., Matsui, T., Konishi, C., Kim, S.-W., Yano, F. and Yano, H. (1999) Formaldehyde treatment suppresses ruminal degradation of
phytate in soyabean meal and rapeseed meal. British Journal of Nutrition 81, 467–471.
Park, W.Y., Matsui, T., Yano, F. and Yano, H.
(2000) Heat treatment of rapeseed meal increases phytate fl ow into the duode- num of sheep.Animal Feed Science and Technology 88, 31–37.
Peterson, A.B., Orth, M.W., Goff, J.P. and Beede, D.K. (2005) Periparturient responses of mul- tiparous Holstein cows fed different dietary phosphorus concentrations prepartum. Jour- nal of Dairy Science 88, 3582–3594.
Pfeffer, E. (1989) Phosphorus requirements in goats. In: Proceedings of the International Meeting on Mineral Nutrition and Mineral Requirements in Ruminants. Shoado Insatsu, Kyoto, Japan, pp. 42–46.
Pfeffer, E., Rodehutscord, M. and Breves, G.
(1996) Effects of varying dietary calcium and phosphorus on growth and on compo- sition of empty bodies and isolated bones of male kids. Archives of Animal Nutrition 49, 243–252.
Pfeffer, E., Beede, D.K. and Valk, H. (2005) Phosphorus metabolism in ruminants and requirements of cattle. In: Pfeffer, E. and Hristov, A. (eds) Nitrogen and Phosphorus Nutrition of Cattle and the Environment.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp.
195–231.
Poppi, D.P. and Ternouth, J.H. (1979) Secretion and absorption of phosphorus in the gas- trointestinal tract of sheep fed on four diets.
Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30, 503–512.
Satter, L. (2002) What goes in must come out – phosphorus balance on dairy farms. In:
Proceedings of the American Association of Bovine Practitioners. Madison, Wis- consin, pp. 125–130.
Satter, L.D. and Wu, Z. (1999) Phosphorus nutri- tion of dairy cattle – what’s new? In: Cornell Nutrition Conference for Feed Manufactur- ers. American Association of Borine Prac- tioners, Rochester, New York, pp. 72–80.
Sevilla, C.C. (1985) Phosphorus defi ciency in lambs. PhD thesis, University of Queen- sland, Brisbane, Australia, 215 pp.
Shappell, N.W., Herbein, J.H., Deftos, L.J.
and Aiello, R.J. (1987) Effects of dietary
calcium and age on parathyroid hormone, calcitonin and serum and milk minerals in the periparturient dairy cow. Journal of Nutrition 117, 201–207.
Shaver, R. and Howard, W.T. (1995) Are we feeding too much phosphorus? Hoards Dairyman 140, 280–281.
Sink, S.E., Knowlton, K.F. and Herbein, J.H.
(2000) Economic and environmental im- plications of overfeeding phosphorus on Virginia dairy farms. Journal of Animal Science78 (Suppl. 2), 4 (Abstr.).
Smith, R.A. and Alexander, R.B. (2000) Sources of nutrients in the nation’s watersheds. In:
Proceedings of Managing Nutrients and Pathogens from Animal Agriculture. Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Serv- ice Camp Hill, Pennsylvania, pp. 13–21.
Spiekers, H., Brintrup, R., Balmelli, M. and Pfeffer, E. (1993) Infl uence of dry matter intake on feacal phosphorus losses in dairy cows fed rations low in phosphorus. Jour- nal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nu- trition 69, 37–43.
Taylor, M.S., Knowlton, K.F., McGilliard, M.L., Swecker, W.S., Ferguson, J.D., Wu, Z. and Hanigan, M.D. (2009) Dietary calcium has little effect on mineral balance and bone mineral metabolism through 20 weeks of lactation in Holstein cows. Journal of Dairy Science92, 223–237.
Ternouth, J.H. (1990) Phosphorus and beef production in Northern Australia. Tropical Grasslands 24, 159–169.
Underwood, B.J. and Suttle, N.F. (1999) The Mineral Nutrition of Livestock, 3rd edn. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 614 pp.
Valk, H. (2002) Nitrogen and phosphorus supply of dairy cows. PhD thesis, University of Utrecht, the Netherlands, 204 pp.
Vitti, D.M.S.S., Kebreab, E., Abdalla, A.L., De Carvalho, F.F.R., De Resende, K., Cromp- ton, L.A. and France, J. (2000) A kinetic model of phosphorus metabolism in grow- ing goats. Journal of Animal Science 78, 2706–2712.
Witt, K.E. and Owens, F.M. (1983) Phosphorus ruminal availability and effects on digestion.
Journal of Animal Science 56, 930–937.
Wu, Z. (2003) People still are feeding too much phosphorus.Hoards Dairyman 148, 210.
Wu, Z., Satter, L.D. and Sojo, R. (2000) Milk production, reproductive performance, and fecal excretion of phosphorus by dairy cows fed three amounts of phosphorus.
Journal of Dairy Science 83, 1028–1041.
Wu, Z., Satter, L.D., Blohowiak, A.J., Stauffacher, R.H. and Wilson, J.H. (2001) Milk production, estimated phosphorus excretion, and bone characteristics of dairy cows fed different amounts of phosphorus for two or three years. Journal of Dairy Science84, 1738–1748.
Yanke, L.J., Bae, H.D., Selinger, L.B. and Cheng, K.J. (1998) Phytase activity of an- aerobic ruminal bacteria. Microbiology 144, 1565–1573.
Yano, F., Yano, H. and Breves, G. (1991) Calcium and phosphorus metabolism in ruminants. In: Tsuda, T., Sasaki, Y. and Kawashima, R. (eds) Physiological Aspects of Digestion and Metabolism in Ruminants;
Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Ruminant Physiology.
Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 277–295.
© CAB International 2010. Phosphorus and Calcium Utilization and
Requirements in Farm Animals (D.M.S.S. Vitti and E. Kebreab) 133
9 Dynamics of Calcium
and Phosphorus Metabolism in Laying Hens
S.
DEV
RIES, R.P. K
WAKKEL ANDJ. D
IJKSTRA Wageningen University, Wageningen, the NetherlandsIntroduction
In poultry, calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are involved in several biologi- cal processes, such as bone development and eggshell formation. Broilers, selected for rapid growth, require high levels of Ca and P for skeletal devel- opment and energy metabolism during early life. Calcium and P defi ciencies in these fast-growing lines can lead to skeletal abnormalities such as tibial dyschondroplasia (TD), which is a common cause of deformity, lameness and mortality in broilers (e.g. Edwards and Veltmann, 1983; Edwards, 2000;
Fleming, 2008).
In layers, Ca and P availability is most crucial during the laying period. Egg- laying hens need large amounts of Ca to deposit in the egg and, mainly, its shell.
The larger part of eggshell formation takes place during the dark hours (scoto- phase), when hens have their nocturnal fast (Scanes et al., 1987) and Ca supply from the digestive system is low. At these moments the hen relies on an ingenious system that allows her to mobilize previously accumulated Ca stores from medul- lary bone tissue (Mueller et al., 1964; Etches, 1987). Since Ca is stored almost entirely as hydroxyapatite crystals of Ca phosphate (3Ca3(PO4)⋅Ca(OH)2), mobilization of Ca results in concurrent release of P (Whitehead and Fleming, 2000). This can lead to elevated plasma levels of P, which will be excreted in the urine (Hurwitz and Bar, 1965). Thus, excretion of P with poultry manure into the environment does not just depend on P intake levels and P output in eggs, but also on dietary Ca levels. Excess P in poultry manure may contribute to build-up of P in the soil and eutrophication (Sharpley, 1999). If either dietary Ca or P is limiting, proper utilization and storage of these minerals are impos- sible. In the reverse situation, when there is an excess of one of both minerals, the availability of the other may be reduced due to the formation of insoluble Ca phosphate in the intestine (Underwood, 1981). Defi ciencies in Ca, P or both may result in reduced bone and eggshell quality (Clunies et al., 1992;
Fleming, 2008). In addition, excess levels of Ca and P may interfere with other nutrients, e.g. zinc and magnesium, thereby causing a defi ciency of these elements (Maynard et al., 1979).
The fi rst part of this chapter focuses on the homeostatically regulated Ca and P metabolism. In the latter part, a dynamic model of Ca and P dynamics in lay- ers is presented that could help in evaluating the effects of changes in feeding management of laying hens.