W ORD R ECOGNITION
4.3 Visual Lexical Decision
4.3.3 Associative Priming
4.3.3.2 Unmasked Associative Priming from L1−L2 (Experiment 3A)
Experiment 3A examined the nature of cross-language priming effects with associatively related pairs (without semantic relation) which were presented at SOA of 100 ms in a lexical decision task with the unmasked priming technique.
4.3.3.2.1 Method
Participants.
A total of fifty participants with an average age of 32.6 years (SD = 5.02) from Ganeshpara, Guwahati, took part in this and the rest of the associative priming experiments. Participants were native speakers of Bodo with Assamese as their second language. All of them had either normal vision or corrected-to-normal vision. Each participant completed a language background questionnaire indicating their use of Bodo and Assamese in various contexts. They also rated proficiency in both languages. Self-report data of the participants’ ratings of their current ability to speak, read, write, and understand in both Bodo and Assamese on a 7-point scale was included. Responses on the language history questionnaire indicated that all the participants had learned Bodo before Assamese. Table 4.24 presents other data like the mean age at which participants reported beginning to acquire both Bodo and Assamese and their mean daily usage in the two languages.Table 4.24 Self-report Ratings in Bodo and Assamese for All Three Bilingual Groups in Experiment 3A
Bodo (L1) Assamese (L2)
Early (n = 14 )
Late High (n = 17 )
Late low (n = 19 )
Early (n = 14)
Late High (n = 17)
Late Low (n = 19)
Age of acquisition (years) 1.3 1.7 2.1 3.3 14.3 15.6
Mean daily usage (%) 52.3 % 49 % 48 % 39.1 % 36.7 % 20.1 %
Self-ratings (7 point scale)
Speaking 6.7
(0.6)
7 6.5
(0.5)
6.7 (1.5)
6.5 (1)
4.2 (1.0)
Reading 6.3
(0.6)
6.5 (1)
6.5 (0.5)
6.3 (1.2)
5.5 (1)
3.4 (1.2)
Writing 6.3
(0.6)
7 6.2
(1.2))
5.7 (2.3)
4.2 (2.2)
2.3 (1.2)
Comprehension 6
(1)
7 6.1
(1.0)
5.3 (2.0)
4.5 (1.7)
3.0 (2.3)
The results of the self-report ratings show that the Bodo ratings of the three groups of bilinguals on all four proficiency measures are similar. However, the Assamese ratings on all four proficiency measures are higher for the high proficient groups
than for the low proficient group. Apart from the self-report measures, participants took part in two versions of the Objective Naming Test in both Bodo and Assamese, as an objective measure of language fluencies in the two languages. Table 4.25 provides the mean scores of the objective naming test in Bodo and Assamese.
Table 4.25 Mean scores on the Objective Naming Test in Bodo and Assamese for all three Bilingual Groups in Experiment 3A
Bilingual Group Bodo Assamese
Early High Proficient 52.4 49.3
Late High Proficient 51.1 50.3
Late Low Proficient 50.2 38.4
Stimuli.
The target words used in the translation priming and semantic priming experiments were selected for this task with the exception that prime-target pairs were associatively related to each other. In search for “purity” in our experimental stimuli we controlled association values (in terms of strength of verbal association) of the pairs for “pure associative pairs” (non-semantic). Associative strength of these words was assessed using a norming study (see Appendix E (iii)). The related primes were matched to the unrelated primes for frequency of occurrence and word length. Prime-target pairs were counterbalanced across two experimental lists.Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two stimulus lists.
Table 4.26 Examples of a Stimulus Set Used in Experiment 3A
Cognate Non-cognate
Prime Type Word Nonword Word Nonword
Associative फोथा−,
“bindi−forehead”
फोथा−, उथुमाय−0,'
“navel−stomach”
उथुमाय−0'
Control जोगोनार−,
“pumpkin−forehead”
जोगोनार−, राव−0,'
“language−stomach”
राव−0'
Note. *फोथा [phwtha]; *, [kopal]; *जोगोनार [zwgwnar]; *, [mopal]; *उथुमाय [uthumai]; *0,' [pet]; *राव [rau]; *0' [ghet]
Procedure.
Participants were tested individually in a quiet room. On each trial, a fixation composed of a plus sign (+) was presented for 500 ms on the center of the screen. Next, a prime word in Bodo was presented for 100 ms. The prime word was immediately replaced by an Assamese target item and it remained on the screen until the participants responded or for a maximum 2,000 ms. Participants were instructed to press one of two buttons on the keyboard (‘m’ for yes and ‘z’ for no) to indicate whether the Assamese target word was a legitimate Assamese word or not. This decision had to be done as quickly and as accurately as possible. When the participant responded, the target disappeared from the screen. Reaction times were measured from target onset until participants’ response. Each participant received a total of fifteen practice trials (with the same manipulation as in the experimental trials) prior to the main experimental trials. Stimulus presentation was randomized, with a different order for each participant.4.3.3.2.2 Results
Outliers were removed and a mixed-effects analysis was run on the reaction time data and error data. The analysis on the overall reaction time data did not show a significant main effect of Prime Type [F < 1]. Targets preceded by associative primes (837 ms) and targets preceded by control primes (823 ms) were responded to in a similar manner. The main effect of Cognate Status was reliable [F(1,155) = 3.722, p = .018]. However, no facilitation was reported as cognate targets (843 ms) were responded to slowly than non-cognate targets (816 ms). The main effect of Bilingual Group approached significance [F(2,47) = 17.264, p = .000].
A significant interaction was observed between Prime Type and Bilingual Group [F(2,7248) = 48.168, p = .000] which reflected that the effect of Prime Type was observed only for Early High Proficient bilinguals in the cognate condition. This priming effect of 45 ms was significant. The Cognate Status and Bilingual Group interaction approached significance [F(2,7248) = 46.064, p = .000]. Finally, the
three-way interaction between Prime Type, Cognate Status and Bilingual Group also approached significance [F(2,7248) = 8.530, p = .000]. The mean reaction times and percentage of errors as a function of Prime Type and Cognate Status are presented in Table 4.27.
Table 4.27 Mean RTs (ms) and Percentage of Errors for Cognate and Non-Cognate Targets Primed by Associatively Related and by Unrelated Control Primes in Experiment 3A
Cognate Status
Overall Cognate Non-cognate
Prime Type RT (Error %) RT (Error %) RT (Error %) Cognate effect
Associative 837 (10) 842 (14.9) 831 (5.6) −11
Control 823 (5) 844 (5.9) 802 (4.2) −42
Priming −14 2 −29
To examine the individual priming effects for the three groups of bilinguals, planned comparisons were performed. The analysis revealed longer reaction times for the Early High Proficient bilinguals (904 ms) that the Late High Proficient (756 ms) and Late Low Proficient bilinguals (677 ms). Moreover, no cognate facilitation effect was observed with any of the bilinguals. The mean reaction times and percentage of errors as a function of Prime Type, Cognate Status, and Bilingual Group are presented in Table 4.28.
Results of the error data revealed a significant main effect of Prime Type [F(1,155)
= 6.492, p = .001]. Targets were responded to more accurately when they were primed by unrelated control primes as compared to when they were primed by associatively related words. The main effect of Cognate Status was significant [F(1,155) = 10.156, p = .000]. Errors were numerous for the cognate targets than for the non-cognate targets. The main effect of Bilingual Group approached significance in the error analysis [F(2,47) = 15.732, p = .000]. Greater errors were observed for the early bilinguals and fewer errors were observed for the late bilinguals. Lastly, comparison of the nonword data was conducted. Analyses of the mean reaction
times to nonwords showed that the participants took significantly longer to respond to nonwords (930ms) than to words (825 ms).
Table 4.28 Mean RT (ms) and Percentage of Errors for Cognate and Non-Cognate Targets Primed by Associatively Related and by Unrelated Control Primes for All Three Bilingual Groups in Experiment 3A
Cognate Status/Bilingual Group
Cognate Non-cognate
Early Late high Late low Early Late high Late low Prime Type RT
(Error %)
RT (Error %)
RT (Error %)
RT (Error %)
RT (Error %)
RT (Error %) Associative 903
(18.4)
781 (8.1)
702 (9.6)
882 (7.2)
780 (2.4)
732 (5.8)
Control 948
(6.6)
740 (5.3)
642 (6.7)
881 (3.6)
722 (4.8)
635 (5.3)
Priming 45 −41 −60 −1 −58 −97
4.3.3.2.3 Discussion
The overall results of Experiment 3A demonstrated significant associative priming effect only for the cognate targets in case of the Early High Proficient group. This finding indicates that associative priming effect was modulated by the cognate status of the word as well the age of acquisition of the bilinguals.