A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON IMPACT OF VEGETARIAN DIETS ON MALE AND
FEMALE SPORTSPERSONS
Harveen Kaur
Department of Food and Nutrition, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana
ABSTRACT
To study the impact of vegetarian diets on male and female sportspersons, a sample of 120 sportspersons including 60 vegetarian (30 males and 30 females) and 60 non-vegetarian (30 males and 30 females) in the age group of 16-25 years were selected from Punjab Agricultural University and Guru Nanak Stadium, Ludhiana.
The data regarding general profile, anthropometric measurements, food intake of the sportspersons was collected. It was revealed that intake of all the food groups including cereals, pulses, vegetables and sugar was inadequate. However, intake of fruits and milk and milk products was found to be higher. A well balanced diet concentrating on nutrient dense and protein rich foods, vegetarians can consume all required nutrients in sufficient amounts was observed.
Keywords: Anthropometric, Food Intake, Non-vegetarian, Sportsperson, Vegetarian.
I. INTRODUCTION
Nutrition, physical performance and the level of functional capacity of the human beings are interrelated. Any dietary deficiency that adversely affects the health of the individual is likely to impair his or her physical performance capacity. Thus, nutrition and wellbeing plays a vital role in the field of sports and overall performance of an athlete. It has been supported by various researches that good nutrition has a very important role in maintaining good health and fitness of the sportsperson so that they can train and compete well. Dietary habits of Indian population have a large variation due to various social, economic and religious beliefs. A large number of players and athletes are also adopting vegetarianism due to ecological, economic and religious reasons. It has been suggested that a vegetarian diet if planned well and consists of variety of foods can be perfectly reliable with good health and can greatly reduce the threat of numerous chronic diseases. A typical vegetarian diet tends to contain fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole grains and legumes excluding all types of meat and fish (Fraser 2009). A well balanced nutritious diet can help to enhance physical activity, athletic performance and recovery from exercise among sportspersons. Higher intake of protein products or protein specifically obtained from meat leads to greater muscularity. Also, meat eating may lead to improved muscular hypertrophy in response to resistance training. The number of people who are following a vegetarian lifestyle have grown significantly. In America alone, the vegetarian population has grown to 4.9 million adults, accounting for 2.3 percent of the total population (Bellows 2012). The sustainability of a vegetarian diet and its
effect on athletic performance has been concluded by many researches in the past years. Evidence has also been provided by the recent studies that if vegetarian diet planned appropriately, they can sufficiently meet the energy and other micronutrient requirements to benefit overall nutritional status and enhance physical performance among the athletes. Vegetarian athletes particularly need more nutrition education, so that they are able to consume adequate energy to achieve the performance to optimal level (Volpe 2007).
The potential health benefits of a vegetarian diet have been reported among non-athletes. However, it might be relevant to consider the benefits of a vegetarian diet among athletes and whether performance can be improved or compromised in any ways.
II OBJECTIVE
To determine the impact of vegetarian diet among sportspersons.
III MATERIALS AND METHODS
One hundred and twenty subjects, including 60 vegetarians and 60 non-vegetarians belonging to 16-25 years of age group were selected from Punjab Agricultural University and Guru Nanak Stadium, Ludhiana. The required data collected through personal interview technique using the especially structured schedule was pertaining to various aspects as general, socio-economic status, family composition of the subjects were collected. Dietary survey was carried out to obtain the information regarding the dietary pattern and food habits. Detailed information on the food intake was obtained using 24 hour recall method for three consecutive days. The nutrient intake was calculated by using Indian Nutritive Software DietCal-A by Kaur G (2014) for dietary assessment and planning. Various anthropometric measurements viz. height, weight, waist & hip circumference and triceps skinfold thickness were collected using standard methods (Jelliffe 1966). Based on the measurements, Body Mass Index (BMI) and Waist/Hip ratio was calculated. Collected data was statistically analyzed by calculation of means, standard deviation and percentage distribution.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 General profile
Majority of the subjects i.e. males as well as females belonged to the nuclear family, which is further evident from the number of family members also i.e. majority of the subjects belonged to families having less than 4 members.
Table 1: General Profile of the subjects (N=120) Characteristics
Males (n=60)
Females (n=60) Family size
Nuclear 48(80) 43(71.6)
Joint 12(20) 17(28.3)
Family Composition
Small(<4) 44(73.3) 22(36.6)
Medium (4 to 8) 16(26.7) 37(61.6)
Large(>8) 0 1(3.3)
Family income (Rs/Annum)
Low (upto 50,000/-) 1(3.3) 0
Medium (50,000-2,50,000/-) 24(40) 22(36.6)
High (>2,50,000/-) 35(58.4) 38(63.4)
Junk Food
Yes 29(48.4) 42(70)
No 31(51.6) 18(30)
Skipping Meals
Yes 23(38.4) 31(51.6)
No 37(61.6) 29(48.4)
It was revealed that 58.4% males and 63.4% females belonged to the high income group. Junk food was being consumed by 48.4% of males and 70% of females. It was further observed that skipping of meals was more prevalent among females as compared to that among males i.e. 51.6% of females used to skip their meals as compared to 38.4% of males which might be due to the reason that female athletes are more conscious about their body looks.
4.2 Main games played
Majority of the subjects whether vegetarian or non-vegetarian among males (53.4%) as well as females (63.4%) sportspersons were participating in athletics, followed by badminton followed by basketball and cricket.
Table 2: Games played by the subjects (N=120)
Game Played
Males Females
Veg (n=30)
Non-veg (n=30)
Total (N=60)
Veg (n=30)
Non-veg (n=30)
Total (N=60) Athletics 16(53.4) 19(63.4) 35(58.3) 19(63.3) 19(63.4) 38(63.4)
Badminton 4(13.4) 1(3.4) 5(8.3) 8(26.7) 5(16.7) 13(21.7)
Basketball 2(6.7) 1(3.3) 3(5) 1(3.4) 0 1(1.6)
Cricket 2(6.6) 2(6.6) 4(6.6) 0 0 0
Table Tennis 1(3.3) 0 1(1.6) 0 2(6.6) 2(3.4)
Football 0 2(6.7) 2(3.3) 0 1(3.3) 1(1.6)
Handball 2(6.7) 1(3.3) 3(5) 0 1(3.4) 1(1.6)
Volleyball 1(3.3) 2(6.7) 3(5) 2(6.6) 0 2(3.4)
Powerlifting 1(3.3) 0 1(1.6) 0 0 0
Softball 1(3.3) 0 1(1.6) 0 0 0
Boxing 0 1(3.3) 1(1.6) 0 0 0
Wrestling 0 1(3.3) 1(1.6) 0 0 0
Shooting 0 0 0 0 1(3.3) 1(1.6)
Swimming 0 0 0 0 1(3.3) 1(1.7)
*Figures in parenthesis represent percentages.
4.2 Morbidity record of the subjects
Table 3 presents the record of non-nutritional ailments during last one year among the selected subjects. Only 13.3% of vegetarian females suffered from common cold while 20% of non-vegetarian males suffered from light fever but the maximum sportsperson i.e. 93.3% and 73.3% of vegetarian & non-vegetarian males and 83.3% and 86.6% of vegetarian & non-vegetarian females were absolutely fit and healthy as they did not suffer from any disease during last one year.
Table 3: Morbidity record of the subjects during last one year (N=120)
Characteristics Males Females
Veg (n=30) Non-veg (n=30) Veg (n=30) Non-veg (n=30)
Common cold 0 0 4(13.3) 0
Fever 2(6.7) 6(20) 1(3.4) 3(10)
Typhoid 0 1(3.4) 0 0
Chicken pox 0 1(3.3) 0 0
Back pain 0 0 0 1(3.4)
No disease 28(93.3) 22(73.3) 25(83.3) 26(86.6)
*Figures in parenthesis represent percentages.
4.3 Anthropometric measurements
The anthropometrical characteristics are one of most influential factors in determining good athletic performance besides other physiological characteristics (Adhikari et al 2014). Data regarding anthropometric measurements of the subjects revealed that there was not any significant difference in the height, weight and body mass index (BMI) of vegetarian and non-vegetarian subjects of both the genders. Similarly, no significant differences in height, weight and lean body mass in vegetarian and non-vegetarian subjects has been reported by Khanna et al (2006).
Table 4: Anthropometric measurements of the subjects (N=120)
Parameters Males Females
Veg (n=30)
Non-veg (n=30)
t-value Veg (n=30)
Non-veg (n=30)
t-value
Height (mts) 1.7±0.05 1.7±0.07 1.6NS 1.6±0.04 1.6±0.06 0.9NS
Weight (kg) 69.8±11.3 73.2±9.4 1.2NS 50.2±4.7 52.7±6.6 1.6*
BMI 22.7±3.3 23.1±2.8 0.5NS 19.6±1.7 20.2±2.8 0.9NS
Waist (inch) 32.6±2.4 33.6±2.3 1.7* 28.1±2.1 29.3±2.7 1.9*
Hip (inch) 36.2±2.9 37.9±2.9 2.1* 32.2±2.5 33.9±2.8 2.5*
W/H ratio 0.9±0.02 0.9±0.03 0.6NS 0.9±0.04 0.9±0.02 0.4NS
Triceps skinfold 7.5±2.7 8.8±3.1 1.6NS 9.8±1.8 9.8±2.0 0.1NS
Values are Mean ± SD
*Significant at 5% level NS – Non-significant
However, a statistically non-significant difference was observed in the waist and hip circumference of vegetarian and non-vegetarian males as well as females.
4.4 Food consumption pattern
As evident from the data, maximum number of vegetarian male athletes i.e. 33.3% were consuming paranthas thrice a week, whereas poori was being consumed rarely by the vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian athletes.
Majority of the subjects i.e. 33.4% of the non-vegetarian athletes and 46.6% of the vegetarian athletes were consuming bread daily and twice a week, respectively. Rice were being consumed by 30% of the non-vegetarian athletes daily. Dalia was being consumed rarely by 40% of vegetarian athletes. Cereals and cereal-products were consumed frequently by a considerably large segment of the selected adolescent subjects from middle income families (Chacko and Begum 2007). Pulses in the form of whole, de-husked or sprouts were being consumed thrice a week by majority of the vegetarian athletes. Milk and milk products were being consumed by vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian subjects daily. Majority of the subjects i.e. 56.6% of the vegetarian and 66.6% of non- vegetarian athletes were consuming green leafy vegetables daily. Other vegetables including roots and tubers were consumed daily by non-vegetarian males and twice a week by vegetarian males. Similarly, fruits were also being consumed daily by majority of both the categories of males. Perry et al (2002) reported the daily intake of five or more servings of fruits (39 and 28%) by vegetarians and non-vegetarians. Sweets were being consumed rarely by vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian category of males.
Data shows that maximum number of vegetarian female athletes i.e. 33.3% were consuming paranthas daily, whereas poori was being consumed rarely by the vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian athletes. Majority of the subjects i.e. 26.7% of the non-vegetarian athletes and 43.3% of the vegetarian athletes were consuming bread weekly and rarely, respectively. Rice was being consumed by 33.3% of the non-vegetarian athletes daily. Dalia was being consumed rarely by 60% of non-vegetarian athletes. Pulses in the form of whole, de-husked were being consumed daily and twice a week by majority of the vegetarian athletes. Milk and milk products were being consumed by vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian subjects daily. Majority of the subjects i.e. 53.3% of the vegetarian and 66.6% of non-vegetarian athletes were consuming green leafy vegetables daily. Other vegetables including roots and tubers were consumed weekly i.e. 33.3% by vegetarian females and rarely i.e.
30% by non-vegetarian females. Similarly, fruits were also being consumed daily by majority of both the categories of females. Sweets were being consumed rarely by vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian category of females. Consumption of miscellaneous items like fast foods, bakery products and beverages have been reported to be consumed daily by a high percentage of adolescent females and males (Chacko and Begum 2007).
Frequency of consumption of non-vegetarian foods by the subjects has been presented in Table 7. It was found that majority of male and female subjects i.e. 30% were consuming eggs daily. Chicken was being munched thrice a week by 26.6% of the males and 16.6% of the females. However, daily consumption frequency of chicken was higher in males (13.4%) as compared to females (10%). Fish, red meat and white meat were being consumed rarely by all the subjects because in Punjab these non-vegetarian food items are not very common.
Females used to consume non-vegetarian food less often than males, confirming the earlier studies Chacko and Begum (2007) that also reported consumption of animal food less commonly among females than males.
Table 5: Percent frequency of consumption of various foods among males (n=30 each)
Food Daily Thrice a week Twice a week Weekly Fortnightly Rarely
Veg Non-veg Veg Non-veg Veg Non-veg Veg Non-veg Veg Non-veg Veg Non-veg
Parantha 23.3 16.7 33.3 16.6 10 23.3 23.3 23.4 3.4 6.6 6.7 13.4
Poori 0 0 0 0 3.3 6.6 26.6 13.4 3.4 10 66.7 70
Bread 3.4 33.4 13.3 6.7 46.6 26.6 13.4 16.6 0 6.7 23.3 10
Rice 16.6 30 13.4 20 26.6 20 3.4 23.4 30 3.3 10 3.3
Dalia 10 20 13.4 16.6 3.4 10 16.6 20 16.6 20 40 13.4
Chapati 100 96.6 0 3.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Whole pulses 30 16.6 36.6 26.6 26.6 36.7 3.4 3.4 3.4 6.7 0 10
Dehusked pulses 6.7 20 36.6 6.7 16.6 43.3 13.4 16.6 6.7 3.4 20 10
Sprouts pulses 13.4 16.7 36.7 26.6 6.6 23.3 0 13.4 10 10 33.3 10
Table 6: Percent frequency of consumption of various foods among females (n=30 each)
Food Daily Thrice a
week
Twice a week
Weekly Fortnightly Rarely
Veg Non- veg
Ve g
Non- veg
Veg Non- veg
Veg Non- veg
Veg Non- veg
Veg Non- veg
Parantha 33.3 40 33.
3
20 10 3.4 13.4 26.6 3.4 0 6.6 10
Poori 0 0 0 0 0 3.4 20 23.3 10 6.7 70 66.6
Bread 3.4 0 13.
3
16.6 20 23.3 10 26.7 10 6.7 43.3 26.7
Rice 20 33.3 16.
7
20 20 16.6 10 16.7 23.3 3.4 10 10
Dalia 33.3 0 33.
3
10 10 23.3 13.4 0 3.4 6.7 6.6 60
Chapati 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Whole pulses
33.3 36.6 30 16.6 6.7 26.6 26.6 26.6 3.4 3.4 0 10
Dehusked pulses
10 3.3 16.
7
13.4 26.6 20 23.3 30 0 0 23.4 33.3
Sprouts pulses
3.4 3.3 20 3.3 33.3 43.3 6.7 16.7 6.6 16.7 30 16.7
Milk products
96.6 100 3.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Milk products 100 96.6 0 3.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
GLV 66.6 56.6 26.6 20 13.4 6.7 3.4 6.7 0 0 0 0
Roots & tubers 13.4 26.6 20 23.3 23.3 13.4 20 20 10 6.7 13.3 10
Fruits 73.3 63.3 26.6 13.4 6.7 13.3 3.4 0 0 0 0 0
Sweets 3.4 16.6 10 6.7 10 16.6 13.3 13.4 20 10 43.3 36.6
Fried foods 0 0 10 6.7 3.4 10 10 6.7 16.6 13.3 60 63.3
GLV 53.3 66.6 26.
6
3.4 13.4 20 6.7 6.7 0 3.3 0 0
Roots &
tubers
10 16.6 20 23.4 10 16.6 33.3 6.7 20 6.7 6.7 30
Fruits 70 76.6 20 16.6 6.7 3.4 3.3 3.4 0 0 0 0
Sweets 23.3 10 6.7 16.6 6.7 10 10 13.4 10 10 43.3 40
Fried foods 0 0 10 3.4 16.6 20 10 16.6 13.4 20 50 40
Table 7: Percent Frequency of consumption of non-vegetarian food by the subjects (n=30 each)
Food Daily Thrice a
week
Twice a week Weekly Fortnightly Rarely
Male s
Fema les
Male s
Femal es
Mal es
Femal es
Mal es
Femal es
Mal es
Femal es
Mal es
Femal es Egg
Whole 30 30 23.4 10 16.6 3.3 0 20 13.4 13.4 16.6 23.3
Egg yolk 3.4 0 33.3 6.7 6.6 6.7 10 13.3 3.4 10 43.3 63.3
Egg
White 40 23.3 23.3 16.6 13.3 3.4 3.4 20 3.4 3.4 16.6 33.3
Chicken 13.4 10 26.6 16.6 30 6.7 26.6 30 3.4 13.4 10 13.3
Fish 0 10 0 6.7 6.7 16.6 20 0 10 6.7 63.3 60
Read
meat 6.7 0 3.3 0 3.3 6.6 6.7 3.4 6.7 10 73.3 80
White
meat 3.3 0 0 6.7 3.4 10 3.4 0 6.6 23.3 83.3 60
4.5 Food intake of the subjects
The data regarding intake of various food groups and their percent adequacy among vegetarian and non- vegetarian males and females has been presented below:
4.5.1 Cereals, grains and products
Intake of cereals grains & products was found to be higher among vegetarian males as well as females and differences were statistically significant (p≤0.05). However, percent adequacy of cereals was lesser among all the subjects when compared to RDA’s. Similarly, Vasanthamani and Anuradha (2011) have also reported that
intake of cereals was ten percent deficit among female athletes of 18-23 years of age.
4.5.2 Pulses and Legumes
Intake of pulses & legumes was comparatively higher among vegetarian males and females as compared to their non-vegetarian counterparts. However, the percent adequacy was almost 81% among vegetarian males and females and 42.5 to 34.5% among non-vegetarian males and females category. Larsson and Johansson (2002) also reported a significantly higher daily intake of pulses and legumes by male and female vegetarians than their non-vegetarian counterparts.
4.5.3 Milk and milk products
Consumption of milk and milk products was significantly (p≤0.05) higher among vegetarian males as compared to non-vegetarian males. Similarly, it was higher among vegetarian females as compared to non-vegetarian females but the difference was statistically non-significant. The percent adequacy ranged from 117.2 to 176.9, which was very high as compared to the SDIs. The reason for such higher intake of milk and milk products is consumption of 2-4 glasses of milk per day by the selected athletes.
4.5.4 Fats and edible oils
As evident from the data, consumption of fats and edible oils was found to be higher among non-vegetarian category. The differences regarding consumption of fats and oils were statistically non-significant among vegetarian and non-vegetarian males whereas statistically significant (p≤0.05) difference was observed among both categories of females. Overall consumption of fats and oils was higher in males as compared to females.
The higher intake of fats and oils was contributed by the daily consumption of paranthas and additional butter in the diets of majority of female subjects as reported by Batra (2009).
Also, the non-vegetarian food items add to the excess fat intake in case of non-vegetarian subjects. Further, the data was collected in winters, which is the time to consume more fats traditionally in the Indian sub-continent, especially in Punjab state.
4.5.5 Fruits
The percent adequacy of consumption of fruits was very high among all the subjects as compared to the suggested dietary intakes. However, it was found to be higher among vegetarian category as compared to non- vegetarians. Similarly, Donovan and Gibson (1996) found a higher intake of fruits and vegetables in both male and female vegetarians compared with omnivorous.
4.5.6 Vegetable
Overall consumption of vegetables including that of leafy, other vegetables and roots & tubers was higher among vegetarian males and females as compared to non-vegetarian category. However, percent adequacy of consumption of vegetables among males and females of vegetarian category was very low when compared to SDIs. Consumption of green leafy vegetables was found to be deficient by female athletes as reported by Vasanthamani and Anuradha (2011).
Table 8: Daily average food intake (g) by the subjects (N=120)
Food groups
MALES FEMALES
SDI (g)
Veg Non-veg
t-value
Veg Non-veg
t-value
(n=30) (n=30) (n=30) (n=30)
Cereals grains &
products 550 339.5±
87.1
281.1±
54.8 3.1* 272.3± 40.4 243.9±
41.3 2.7*
Pulses & legumes 80 65.8±
30.2 34.9± 26.1 1.4NS 65.5± 21.2 27.6±
12.9 1.4NS Milk & milk products 750 1327.8±
530
1077.3±
147.1 2.5* 944.8±
162.5
879±
325.3 0.9NS Fats & edible oils 75 43.1± 5.7 45.3± 7.4 1.2NS 33.3± 9.7 36.4±
7.2 2.3*
Fruits 150 288.8±
201.7 169± 149.3 2.6* 326.3±
125.3
293±
126.1 1.0NS Leafy vegetables 150 72.4±
37.7 51.9± 33.8 1.4NS 65.7± 7.0 48.4±
0 2.3*
Other vegetables 200 83.6± 48 59.8± 19.2 2.5* 62.9± 25.4 60.7±
25.3
0.3NS
Roots & tubers 150 84.5±
18.9 75.7± 12.2 2.07* 71.7± 56.04 64.9±
19.9 0.6NS Sugars 80 45.3± 5.4 46.8± 8.7 0.8NS 37.6± 9.1 38.1±
7.1 1.06NS Fish, meat & poultry - 0
213.9±
131.5
- 0
154.02±
73.02
-
Values are Mean ± SD
*Significant at 5% level NS-Non-significant
4.5.7 Sugars
The percent adequacy of sugars ranged between 47 to 58.5 for vegetarian females and non-vegetarian males respectively. Although, consumption of sugars was found to be higher among non-vegetarian subjects but the differences were statistically non-significant. Similarly, Haddad and Tanzaman (2003) have also reported non- significant difference in consumption of sugars and sweets between vegetarians and non-vegetarians. Often sportsperson consume more table sugar in milk and more of energy drinks which have good quantity of sugar so to increase the glucose level during their workout.
Table 9: Percent adequacy of food intake by the subjects (N=120)
Food groups MALES FEMALES
Veg (n=30)
Non-veg (n=30)
Veg (n=30)
Non-veg (n=30)
Cereals grains & products 60.5 52 49.4 44.2
Pulses & legumes 81.2 42.5 81.2 34.5
Fats & edible oils 57.3 60.4 44.4 48.5
Fruits 192 112.7 217.5 195.3
Leafy vegetables 48.7 34.6 43.8 32.3
Milk & milk products 176.9 143.6 126 117.2
Other vegetables 41.8 29.9 31.4 30.3
Roots & tubers 56.4 50.5 47.8 43.3
Sugars 56.6 58.5 47 47.6
V. CONCLUSIONS
Majority of the subjects whether vegetarian or non-vegetarian among males (53.4%) as well as females (63.4%) sportspersons were participating in athletics, followed by badminton, basketball and cricket, respectively. Milk and milk products were being consumed daily by vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian sportspersons of both the genders. Majority of the subjects i.e. 66.6% of the vegetarians and 56.6% of non-vegetarians were consuming green leafy vegetables daily. Similarly, fruits were also being consumed daily by majority of both the categories of males. Majority of male and female subjects i.e. 30% were consuming eggs daily. Chicken was being munched thrice a week by 26.6% of the males and 16.6% of the females. However, daily consumption frequency of chicken was higher in males (13.4%) as compared to females (10%).
Overall consumption of vegetables including that of leafy, other vegetables and roots & tubers was higher among vegetarian males and females as compared to non-vegetarian category. Hence, it can be concluded that vegetarianism can be an equally healthy alternative for sportspersons. A well balanced diet concentrating on nutrient dense and protein rich foods, vegetarians can consume all required nutrients in sufficient amounts, leading to optimal health and athletic performance.
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