at the Eight Grade of MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara
in the Academic Year of 2011/2012)
THESIS
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for Gaining
the Degree of Bachelor in English Language Education
By:
ZAHRI TAMAM
Student’s Number: 073411035
EDUCATION FACULTY
WALISONGO STATE INSTITUTE FOR ISLAMIC STUDIES
SEMARANG
iv
Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara in the Academic Year of 2011/2012)
Writer : Zahri Tamam
Student Number : 073411035
This study was conducted based on the reason that teaching English is interesting when the student work sheet (lembar kerja siswa / LKS) has been used in nearly the Junior High School nowadays. The existence of this phenomenon is commonly very helpful in one hand, either the teachers or the students to have same portion of material or exercise. On the other hand, the situation inside the
class and students’ psychological condition are different when the teacher asks
them to do the exercises of their student work sheet. Initially, the researcher suspects the students will feel saturated in learning (learning plateau) if they do the task of student work sheet in the class, but the result proves different.
The writer chose the male and female students of Eight Grade of MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara because they are expected to recognize a problem deals with them, in this case is learning plateau. Hence, it is important to know whether the students can overcome their psychological problem, either when in or out the classroom in the future. There are 96 students of 8th grade, divided to 3 classes, which 30 of them are taken as sample in this research.
The Purpose of this research is to identify both male and female students’ saturation in learning and to compare between them in doing student work sheet in the classroom. Comparative study and quantitative approach was used here. The researcher gave two hypothesis; alternative ( ) and null ( ) hypothesis.
The alternative hypothesis is: male and female students’ saturation is not identical in doing English student work sheet in the classroom. Whereas, the null
hypothesis is male and female students’ saturation is identical in doing English student work sheet in the classroom. After calculating the results, the researcher categorizes it in Rating scale.
v
Name : Zahri Tamam
Student’s Number : 073411035
Department : English Language Education
certify that this thesis is definitely my own work. I am completely responsible for the content of this thesis. Other writer’s opinions or finding included in the thesis are quoted or cited in accordance with ethical standards.
Semarang, 29th November 2011
The Writer,
Zahri Tamam
vi
6. Verily, with the hardship, there is relief (i.e. there is one hardship with two reliefs, so one hardship cannot overcome two reliefs).1
Wasting Time jeopardises The Future
1
vii
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to:
My beloved father (Bapak) and mother (Bu’e), thank you very much for
your prayer, love, affection, patience and guidance which always
support me in all my steps.
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All thanks is only for the Almighty Allah SWT Who always blesses and
gives his loves upon the researcher in his life and enables him to accomplish this
thesis entitled THE STUDENTS’ SATURATION OF DOING ENGLISH
STUDENT WORK SHEET IN THE CLASSROOM (A Comparative Study
between Male and Female Students at the Eight Grade of MTs Darul Hikmah
Menganti Kedung Jepara in the Academic Year of 2011/2012)
The prayer and salaams are always for the Prophet Muhammad the most
beloved Prophet of Allah who has brought us from the darkness into the lightness,
from the stupidity into the knowledge era, his relatives and companions.
In this occasion, the writer gives his great thanks to:
1. Dr. Suja’i, M.Ag., Dean of Tarbiyah Faculty for providing academicals
facilities which supported the researcher in accomplishing this thesis.
2. Mrs. Dra. Hj. Siti Mariam, M.Pd., and Mr. Ismail SM., M.Ag., as my advisors
for providing their valuable guidance, whose encouraging, kindness, and
valuable assistance enabled me to complete this research. He will never forget
their kindness and patience.
3. The chief of English department, Mrs. Siti Tarwiyah, M.Hum and all the
English lecturers for providing academicals assistance, guidance and support.
4. The headmaster, the teacher, the students, and other staffs of MTs Darul
Hikmah Menganti, who help the writer to obtain the data needed in this
research.
5. My beloved father (Bapak) and mother (Bu’e), thank you very much for your prayer, love, affection, patience and guidance which always support me in all
my steps.
6. My beloved elderly sisters (Mbak Zunk and Mbak Lia) and my only elderly brother-in-law (Mas Krisna), Thanks always supporting protecting me all the time. May God always bless you all and your family.
7. My niece (Sasa) and my nephew (Azka) who always color my family’s life
ix
8. The Big Family of BPI S.16: Pak Manshur & Bu Indra, “Rido-Rodi”, Paxyafi’i, El-Capitano, Rijaludin, Iqbal Hanav, Tomi Uwee, Udin, Mimin, Aziz, Wafar, and Ban-199 United: Budi, Endy, Pi’i, Dek Azez and all
members that I cannot mention one by one. Your joke will be always
unforgettable.
9. The Big Family of TBI 2007, Kopet Gang, Trio Warkop and all my friends there. We ever be in 1 class guys!
10. The special website, www.library.nu, which really helps the writer in getting some rare references.
Finally, the researcher expects that this thesis may be helpful for all.
Amin.
Semarang, December 2011 The writer,
x
ADVISOR NOTE...………... ii
RATIFICATION... iii
ABSTRACT..……….... iv
THESIS PROJECT STATEMENT..………... v
MOTTO………... vi
DEDICATION………. vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……….………... viii
TABLE OF CONTENT……… x
Chapter I: Introduction... 1
A. Background of the Study... 1
B. Definition of Key Terms... 3
C. Reason for Choosing the Topic... 5
D. Research Questions... 5
E. Objectives of Study ... 6
F. Limitation of The Study... 6
G. Pedagogical Significance of the study... 6
Chapter II: Review of the Related Literature (The Students’ Saturation of Doing English Student Work Sheet in the Classroom)………... 8
A. Previous Researches... 8
B. Theoretical Review... 9
1. Student and Adolescent... 9
a. The Definition of Student... 9
b. The Definition of Adolescent... 10
c. Adolescent Growth... 11
xi
c. The Distinction between Saturation in Learning and Learning
Plateau... 16
d. Factors Influencing Saturation in Learning... 16
3. Student Work Sheet... 21
a. The Definition of Student Work Sheet... 21
b. The Functions of Student Work Sheet... 21
c. The Weakness of Student Work Sheet... 22
d. The Weakness of English Student Work Sheet in Indonesia.. 24
4. Classroom Condition... 26
a. The Definition of Classroom... 26
b. Classroom Environment... 26
c. Teacher Roles in the Classroom... 27
C. Hypothesis... 28
Chapter III: Research Method………..... 29
A. Research Design... 29
B. Research Setting... 32
C. Population and Sample... 34
D. Variable and Indicator... 35
E. Data Collection Technique... 36
F. Data Analysis Technique... 37
Chapter IV: Findings and Discussion...…...………..... 40
A. Finding... 40
B. Hypothesis Test... 41
C. Discussion... 46
xii BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
Table 3 The score of male and female students’ saturation in learning, 41.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of The Study
Carrol in Ramelan says:
“Language is an arbitrary system of speech sound which used or can be used in interpersonal communication by an aggregation of human beings and which rather exhaustively catalogues things, processes, and events in the human environment.”1
The presence of language is one of the signs of Allah as a creator. As
Allah stated in verse ar-Rum 22:
As a means of communication, language allows human being to say thing
to each other. By language people can express their ideas, feeling, and desires
whether in speaking or writing, in formal or informal situation.
Language is the most fundamental means of communication. It is used
and needed every day. Language can express everything in people mind by using
it. Language follows every human works and activities. If people live in society
without knowing their language, a lot of difficulties in communication may appear
because of dissimilarity of aspect of culture and behavior. Language is considered
a social phenomenon because all human beings communicate with their respective
speech communities using the language they speak. Through language, day-to-day
1
Ramelan, Introduction to Linguistic Analysis, (Semarang: IKIP Semarang Press, 1992), p.10.
2
interactions are possible, and with the help of language interpersonal relations are
possible as well. After all, language shapes the society and culture.
Recently, modern people does not only learn a language; their mother
tongue. In order to socialize in the society they have to learn another language
whether as second or foreign language. Language as a tool for interaction
becomes the key point while people want to get wider community/ society. With
language, they can socialize with others even they come from different region or
country.
English is a tool used to communicate with other people who do not
speak the same language, and obviously the spread of English is continuing.
Nowadays, in a great number of countries people are keen to learn English
because they realize the importance of English. They not only just regard English
as a language which can be used in commerce, science, medical and technology,
but also a language which could also be used for international communication.
Moreover, it is crucial to use English to do trading with other people who cannot
speak the same language. English has become a universal language, and people
know its functions and the necessity to learn it. The students should learn English
as well as possible in order to take the superiority and to stand confidently in the
world stage.
English is the International Language in the world and people cannot let
their next generations leave behind in International competitions just because they
are not capable in using English in conversation. Nowadays parents are already
aware of that and they use English to their daily conversation with their kids so
they are naturally in English conversation. Today and future, the skill in English
language is the most important for the future life, because of many science and
knowledge which use it. Everyone can get much information from the strange
literature through the English translation ability. Nowadays, many products of
technology use English language. For example, the man can operate the computer
easily when they have skills in English language.
In Indonesia, the government emerges the program to introduce English
education; as compulsory or additional subject. Teaching English itself is
attractive when the Student’s Work Sheet (lembar kerja siswa / LKS) has been
released and be used in nearly the Junior High School nowadays. Students Work
Sheet is a book that contains a compilation of questions and exercises related to
the subject at school.3 The existence of this phenomenon is commonly very
helpful in one hand, either the teachers or the students to have same portion of material or exercise. On the other hand, the situation of students’ psychological condition is different when the teacher asks them to do the exercises of their
Students Work Sheet.
Learning plateau or in Indonesia identically called saturation in learning
is famous thing for all kind of students, including for middle schooler.
Unfortunately, this phenomenon is not widely investigated by Indonesian
researchers. Many investigated about motivation. Though motivation is part of
learning plateau, the researcher wants to reveal that saturation in learning is really
undergone by many students in Indonesia by knowing them whether their
motivation is enough or not.
In this research, the researcher tries to investigate the students’ saturation and conducts a research entitled The Students’ Saturation of Doing English
Student Work Sheet in the Classroom (A Comparative Study between Male and Female Students at the Eight Grade of MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung
Jepara in the Academic Year of 2011/2012). Through this research, the researcher
tries to find out the existence of saturation among the students.
B. Definition of Key Terms a. Student
Student is a person engaged in study; one who is devoted to learn
especially one who attends a school.4 In this research, the researcher deals with
the students of MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara that are
categorized as adolescence. Adolescence is associated with numerous social,
cognitive, and biological changes.5 There seems to be a qualitative shift in the
nature of thinking such that adolescents are more self-aware and self-reflective
than pre-pubescent children.6
b. Saturation
Saturation literally means solid or complete so it cannot load any more.
It means tired or bored as well.7 In term of psychology, saturation in learning is
commonly called learning plateau or plateau only.8 Plateau is a period of little or no gain in learning. This is like a flat portion on a hill where one walks but
does not climb.9 The distinction between them will be clearly explained later in
this thesis.
c. Student Work Sheet
One of learning media is student work sheet, in Indonesia commonly
called lembar kerja siswa / LKS. Student work sheet is a book that contains a compilation of questions and exercises related to the subject at school.10 It is
usually formed from material summary and multiple choice questions. This is
one of learning media which most of schools in Indonesia use it.
In Indonesian, student work sheet is used as the second material in
teaching and learning process besides textbook. A student work sheet is to help
the teacher explained the lesson in simple way and makes his or her students
easier in understanding the lesson given.
5
K.S. Douglas Low, et.al., “The Stability of Vocational Interests From Early Adolescence to Middle Adulthood: A Quantitative Review of Longitudinal Studies”, Psychological Bulletin, (vol.131, no.5, 2005), p.717
6
Sarah-Jayne Blakemore & Suparna Choudury, “Development of the Adolescent Brain:
Implications for Executive Function and Social Cognition”, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, (vol.47, no.3, 2006), p.296
7
Muhibbin Syah, Psikologi Pendidikan dengan Pendekatan Baru, (Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya, 2010), p.162
8
Muhibbin Syah, Psikologi Pendidikan dengan Pendekatan Baru, p.162
9
Bangalore Kuppuswamy, Advanced Educational Psychology, (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 2008), p.120
10 LKS Lembar Kerja Siswa Memasung Kreatifitas Guru dan Siswa,
d. Classroom
A part of school is classroom. Classroom is a room in a school or
college where groups of students are taught.11 The physical arrangement of
your classroom can influence the students’ behavior and learning. The
classroom attempts to provide a safe space where learning can take place
uninterrupted by other distractions. The furniture of the classroom consists of
desks and seats either for the students or the teacher, class cupboard,
blackboard and other appropriate classroom accessories. Learning process is
dominantly conducted in classroom than outside of classroom.
C. Reason of Choosing The Topi
c
A numbers of considerations are proposed to show the important of
conduction this study as follows:
1. The eight grader students are attractive, especially their psychological aspect.
In learning English, they habitually face some problems in the classroom.
2. The student work sheet is very helpful, but it is still blurred whether they are
really helped or not, whereas its appearance is not occasionally interesting
enough.
The writer chooses the students of Eight Grade of MTs Darul Hikmah
Menganti Kedung Jepara as the subject of the research because they are expected
to recognize a problem deals with them, in this case is learning plateau. Hence, it
is important to know whether the students can overcome their psychological
problem, either when in or out the classroom. The writer hopes the result of the
research will be useful; not only for the students of Eight Grade of MTs Darul
Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara, but also for the lecturers and the other students
who are learning English.
D. Research Questions
11Cambridge Advanced Learners’ Dictionary 3rd Edition–
Based on the explanation above, the research question will be about:
1. How is the male students’ saturation of doing student work sheet at Eight
Grade of MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara?
2. How is the female students’ saturation of doing student work sheet at Eight
Grade of MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara?
3. How is the comparison between male and female students’ saturation of doing
student work sheet at Eight Grade of MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung
Jepara?
E. Objectives of Study
In line with research question, this study has purposes as follow:
1. To identify the male students’ saturation of doing student work sheet at Eight
Grade of MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara.
2. To identify the female students’ saturation of doing student work sheet at Eight
Grade of MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara.
3. To compare between male and female students’ saturation of doing student
work sheet at Eight Grade of MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara.
F. Limitation of the Study
In order to make the scope of the research not too wide and controllable,
researcher necessary gives limitation to the study. In composing the study, the
researcher will limit the study to the male and female students’ saturation of doing
English student work sheet in the classroom. So, the writer compares their
saturation in learning (learning plateau) between male and female students.
G. Pedagogical Significance
Because this research is another issue in Teaching English as a Foreign
Language (TEFL), its results are theoretically and pedagogically important for
researcher, students/readers, lecturers, policy maker in the institution and for the
This research will give reference for lecturers that deals with the students’ ability toward the subject and their psychological condition. It will be useful as a reference, self-reflection and evaluation to improve their teaching after
knowing the problems that faced by the students.
For the students/ readers especially at MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara, the analysis of students’ saturation can be used as a reference for them so that they can understand how to overcome their difficulties in learning.
For the policy makers in the school, the analysis of students’ saturation in
this research is significant to decide the material, student work sheet, textbooks or
handbook chosen and teaching style.
Finally, it is hoped that this thesis will help other researchers to do some
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The Students’ Saturation of Doing English Student Work Sheet in the Classroom
This chapter presents review of related literature which discusses the ideas
and theories underlying the subject matter of the study as follow:
A.Previous Researches
Not many researchers conducted in students‟ saturation in the classroom.
The first research that related closely to the study is the research done by Qing Xu
in Asian Social Science, Vol.5, no.2, 2009. The research entitled "Moving beyond
the Intermediate EFL Learning Plateau” shows that plateau phase is an
unavoidable stage which may happen constantly during the process of English
language learning. The study is aimed to teachers that should help the students to
understand that in the intermediate phase, they are deepening their knowledge and
gaining confidence.1
The second research is “Classroom Discourse and Student Learning“, by
Yani Zhang in Asian Social Science, Vol.4, no.9, 2008. This research asserts that
student learning is closely linked to the quality of classroom talk. As teachers,
they should attach more importance to spoken discourse during classroom
interaction. Oral tasks should be given greater prominence than it is in the
traditional ratio of spoken and written tasks. In order to achieve this, teachers
ought to improve self-teaching skills.2
Another previous research was conducted by Hanson Paul LeBlanc III.
The title of the thesis is, “Students Perceptions of Rules for Classroom
Interaction”, (The Department of Speech Communication of Louisiana State
University and Agricultural and Mechanical College). In this study, the perception
of high school students regarding the rules for classroom interaction is measured.
1 Qing Xu, “Moving Beyond the Intermediate EFL Learning Plateau”, Asian Social
Science, (vol.5, no.2, 2009)
2
The study found that Black students have more positive attitudes regarding the
importance of distraction, laziness, and respectfulness rules than non-Black
students.3
The last previous research; “Students Motivation in Learning English” (a
Comparative Study between 10th and 12th Grade Students at SMA N 1 Bobotsari
Purbalingga in Academic year 2009/2010)”, was conducted by Titi Rokhmah
(Tarbiyah Faculty of ELT Department at IAIN Walisongo Semarang). The study
reveals that there was distinction between 10th and 12th grade students motivation
in learning English. The 10th grade students‟ motivation was in quite category,
while the 12th grade reached high category in that research. Alternative hypothesis
which said that there is significant difference between 10th and 12th students‟
motivation in learning English is accepted.4 Although the research above is not
identical with this research, the researcher still discovers some similarities;
psychological aspect and research method.
B.Theoretical Review
1. Student and Adolescent a. The Definition of Student
It is clear that MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung Jepara one of
middle schools. In Indonesia, middle school is known as Sekolah
Menengah Pertama (commonly shortened as SMP), which includes grade
7 through 9.5 A school where many adolescents attend the class there
based on their level (class).
The middle schoolers commonly attain the age of 13-15 years old.
In Indonesia, every citizen who attains the age of 7-15 years old must join
3
Hanson Paul LeBlanc III, “Students Perceptions of Rules for Classroom Interaction”,
Thesis (Louisiana: The Department of Speech Communication of Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, 1992), unpublished thesis.
4 Titi Rokhmah (Student Number: 3105431), “Students Motivation in Learning English”,
Thesis (Semarang: Tarbiyah Faculty of ELT Department at IAIN Walisongo Semarang, 2009), unpublished thesis.
5Middle School
the basic educations, they are elementary school for 6 years and junior
high school for 3 years.6
Some defined student differently. The following are definitions of
student:
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary student is a boy or girl at school.7
Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 3th Edition (computer dictionary) gives more familiar definition of student; it is a person who is learning at a college or university, or sometimes at a
To define adolescent is not easy, it depends on the culture that has
its own certain criteria of naming adolescent. Adolescent has its period that
called adolescence. It is a time of significant physical, social, and
emotional changes, accompanied by changes in cognitive and language
skills.10 Adolescence is a developmental period that is generally begun in
approximately 13 years old.11
6 Sekolah Menengah Pertama
, http://www.kemdiknas.go.id/peserta-didik/sekolah-menengah-pertama.aspx, (Retrieved on 12 June 2011)
7 Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, (USA: Oxford University Press, 2000), p.1187 8 Cambridge Advanced Learners’
Dictionary 3rd Edition– Computer Dictionary; Version 3.0, (Cambridge University Press, 2008)
9
Abdul Mujib and Jusuf Mudzakkir, Ilmu Pendidikan Islam, (Jakarta: Kencana, 2006), p.103
10 Angela Hein Ciccia, et.al., “
Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Developments;
Implications for Clinical Assessment in Traumatic Brain Injury”, Top Lang Disorders, (vol.29, no.3, 2009), p.249
11
Middle schoolers are often in a state of confusion, as they want to
act like adults, but still feel like children; they also begin to feel the
pressures of complicated social interactions, especially with the beginning
of male and female relationships.12
Westerners mention adolescent with the term “puberty”, on the other hand Americans call it as “adolescent”. Both of them are transition from childhood to adult. While the term “akil balig”, “pubertas” are still
used by many people in this country to call an adolescent, and the common
predicate is “remaja”.13
From the definition above, we can conclude that adolescents have
their own period, adolescence. It is a period that shows their development
continuously by dealing with physical, social, and emotional changes. The
relationship between student and adolescent as mentioned above, students
of junior high school or sometimes middle schoolers who attain the age of
13-15 years old are belonging to adolescent.
c. Adolescent Growth
Adolescence represents a period of significant growth.
Individually, adolescents experience rapid physical growth and changes,
accompanied by shifts in cognitive and emotional capacities. At the same
time, the development from childhood into young adulthood brings new
cultural and social opportunities and expectations.
1) Physical Growth and Change
The biological changes of adolescence include hormonal changes
leading to growth of secondary sex characteristics, growth in height and
weight, and changes in body composition (changes in bone, muscle, and
12
Psychology of Middle Schoolers, http://math-and-reading-help-for-kids.org/articles/Psychology_of_Middle_Schoolers.html, (Retrieved on 16 December 2010)
13
fat). The onset of puberty, as marked by hormone changes, starts as
early as age 8 in girls and age 9 in boys.14
2) Cognitive Growth and Change
Adolescents become more aware of their surroundings and be able to
direct their own thinking, learning, and problem solving. Kohlberg
theorizes that the capacity to morally reason grows more complex and
differentiated over time. Kohlberg argues that in general, data suggest
that early adolescents typically reason according to his stage two
individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange, but by about age
13, reasoning progresses to include mutual understandings. Thus, for a
12-year-old, being „„good‟‟ is about following the rules for one‟s own
good, whereas in stage three, the capacity to understand another
person‟s experiences broadens notions of morality to include a concern for others and the nature of varying circumstances. In short, one‟s frame
of reference moves from childhood moral reasoning that is based on
personal perspectives or „„what is right is what is good for me‟‟ to
adolescent moral reasoning that is based in greater appreciation for
others‟ perspectives and experiences or „„what is right is for one may not be right for another.‟‟15
balance between individuation and connection drives identity
experimentation and the fleeting passions that often accompany it.16
14
Eric M. Anderman, & Lynley H. Anderman, Psychology of Classroom Learning : An Encyclopedia, (Farmington Hills: Macmillan Reference USA, 2009), p.20
This period is very crucial where adolescences find and undergo
new things in their life, not only in physical aspect, but also psychological
and social aspect. With this alteration, they want to be noticed their
existence despite they are not adults yet.
d. Adolescent in Indonesian Context
To define adolescent for Indonesian people is same as difficult as
to define it in general. The question is because Indonesians consist of
various tribes, traditions and social-economic grade along with
educational. It can be concluded that there is no same profile of Indonesian
adolescent that is in force nationally.17
Nevertheless, as a reference manual we can use age limitation of
11-24 years old and not getting married yet for Indonesian adolescent with
the considerations as follow:18
a. 11 years old is a time when signs of sexual secondary begin to appear
(physical criteria).
b. Either in tradition or in religion, that age is considered as “akil balig”
for many Indonesian people, hence they do not consider it as children
(social criteria).
c. At that age, perfecting signs of mind developmental begin to exist
(psychological criteria).
d. 24 years old is maximum age limitation to be independent toward
parents. If persons who attain that age do not meet yet the maturity of
social and psychological aspect, they are still adolescents.
e. From the explanations above, marriage is crucial. Because the essence
of marriage to judge persons as mature although at any age.
Indonesia has so many cultures and tradition in each region that
influenced in defining things, including adolescents, especially dealing
with their age.
17
Sarlito Wirawan Sarwono, Psikologi Remaja, (Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2010), p.18
18
2. Saturation in Learning
a. The Definition of Saturation in Learning
Basically the word saturation that means “kejenuhan”19 is referring to Indonesian context. Saturation literally means solid or complete so it
cannot load any more. It means tired or bored as well. Saturation in
learning is commonly called learning plateau or plateau only.20 Meanwhile, plateau of learning is a terminology of educational
psychology.21 The “plateau learning theory” was introduced to the
educational arena in the late 1970s.22
The definitions of plateau of learning are many. The following are
definitions of plateau of learning:
According to The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, plateau is a period of time during the learning of response when no improvement is detected.23
Based on Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 3th Edition
(computer dictionary), plateau is a period during there are no large changes.24
Collins, et.al, in Qing Xu defines plateau as a phenomenon that in the process of learning a new skill, the learner, in spite of efforts and practice, makes no perceptible progress.25
Saturation in learning or plateau is difficult time for the students as
English learners. Some may feel they have arrived at a plateau and making
further progress seems elusive, despite the amount of time and effort they
19
John M. Echols and Hassan Shadily, Kamus Inggris-Indonesia, (Jakarta: PT Gramedia, 2006), p.501
20
Muhibbin Syah, Psikologi Pendidikan dengan Pendekatan Baru, p.162
21 Qing Xu, “Moving Beyond the Intermediate EFL Learning Plateau”, Asian Social
Science, p.66
22
Catherine P. Puttre, “Does the Degree of Implementation of the Components of the
Middle School Design Relate to High-Stakes Assessment Scores in Grade 8 Reading and Math?”, Dissertation (Blacksburg: Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2007), p.3
23
Arthur S. Reber and Emily S. Reber, The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, (London: Penguin Books, 2001), p.542
24 Cambridge Advanced Learners’ Dictionary 3rd Edition–
Computer Dictionary; Version 3.0, (Cambridge University Press, 2008)
25Qing Xu, “
devote to it.26 It can be a very frustrating experience for the students and
unfortunately a lot of them give up learning and move on to something
else.
b. The History of Learning Plateau
Fossilisation27 as a phenomenon related to SLA process, first
discussed by Selinker (1972), is widely accepted as a key attribute to adult
SLA. In fact, the term “fossilisation” has been borrowed from the field of
paleontology as a metaphor used in SLA studies being an appropriate term
describing earlier language forms “encased” in interlanguage28 (IL) of a learner that cannot be changed by special attention or practice of the L2
being learned.29 Compared to fossilization, learning plateau is also another
phenomenon which differs from the former in that it is temporary and can
be overcome by learners provided that they get subjected to certain
pedagogical techniques and effective learning strategies.30
He has defined „fossilisation‟ under the term “fossilize” as “of a
linguistic form, feature, rule, etc to become permanently established in the
interlanguage of a second–language learner in a form that is deviant from
the target language norm and that continues to appear in performance
regardless of further exposure to the target language.”31
However, recently, it has been looked at the stopping-short
characteristic of SLA as plateau effect (Richards, 2008). He has defined
26
Jack C. Richard, Moving Beyond the Plateau, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p.1
27
Selinker proposed that: “Fossilization is the phenomenon that linguistic items, rules, and subsystems of speakers of a particular native language tend to persist in their interlanguage relative to a particular target language. (Moving Beyond the Intermediate EFL Learning Plateau, p.66)
28
It is a linguistic system between the native language and the target language, used by foreign language learners. (Probe into the Internal Mechanism of Interlanguage Fossilization, p.75)
29
Mohammed Q. Al-Shormani, Fossilisation and Plateau Effect in Second Language Acquisition, (CALTS, University of Hyderabad, India, 2010), p.2
this phenomenon as a temporary cessation when learners move from
intermediate to advanced levels. Thus, learning plateau can be simply
defined as a natural learning process with temporary cessation of language
learning. In fact, Richards looks at “temporary fossilization” as plateau
effect that can be overcome specially when there are certain pedagogical
procedures, effective learning strategies and techniques followed by
teachers and learners alike.32
c. The Distinction Between Saturation in Learning and Learning Plateau
From the writer point of view, the distinction between saturation in
learning and plateau learning is on the context. Many overseas experts
define the period as plateau, learning plateau or plateau of learning, so it means that this terminology does not come from Indonesia, but abroad.
Indonesian people call that terminology with simple name, it is
“kejenuhan” that in English is saturation. In psychology, either saturation or plateau has different comprehension.33
d. Factors Influencing Saturation in Learning
When learning a new language, learners often feel stuck.34 They
feel like they have reached a plateau where they see no further significant
progress.35 Chaplin in Muhibbin Syah indicated that saturation in learning
can strike the students if they are loss of motivation and consolidation one
of particular skills level before they reach for the next level.36 The causes
will be explained as follow:
For further comprehension, read more detail in: J.P.Chaplin, Kamus Lengkap Psikologi, (Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo Persada, 2009), [Translator: Dr. Kartini Kartono]
34
Stuck (adj.): in a difficult situation, or unable to change or get away from a situation. (Cambridge Advanced Learners’ Dictionary 3rd Edition–
Computer Dictionary).
35
Vandana Singhal, Why Do We Reach a Plateau in Learning Language?, http://www.brighthub.com/education/languages/articles/72742.aspx, (Retrieved on 14 June 2011)
36
Motivation is one of the most important factors that affect achievement
in foreign languages. To be a good learner, a student has to have good
reasons for learning languages, because learning is long, arduous, and
sometimes expensive.37
Motivation is crucial to a student‟s academic success at any age. Because students form self-concepts, values, and beliefs about their
abilities at a young age, the development of early academic motivation
has significant implications for later academic careers.38 It will make
the students easier to reach the best achievement. Sometimes they lose
this important thing that makes them saturated.
2) Consolidation
Consolidation is progress and a vital part of the learning process. It is
phase that conceived of as a plateau in learning - an experience of
feeling that no matter how hard the students try, there is no progress.39
A lot of the learning process involves consolidation and extension of
existing knowledge so it is harder to see what has to be achieved and to
recognize when the achievement has been successful.40 In short,
consolidation means that the students have to master new skill, on the
other hand their prior knowledge was not successfully gained well.
In line with Chaplin, Bangalore Kuppuswamy describes the cause
of plateau stage in the following way:41
Several factors may cause the plateau stage. The plateau may show that the pupil is having some difficulty in learning. If a task is complex and if the student has concentrated on one part only, plateau stage may indicate that the student is taking time of initial lag to start again. This may indicate divided attention in the
37
Insup Taylor, Psycholinguistics: Learning and Using Languages, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1990), p.345
38 J.M.Moula, “A Study of the Relationship Between Academic Achievement Motivation
and Home Environment Among Standard Eight Pupils, (vol.5, 2010), p.214
39 Cited from “Beating a Learning Plateau”, help2read Newsletter, (vol.1, issue 3, July/
2008), p.1
40Qing Xu, “Moving Beyond the Intermediate EFL Learning Plateau”, p.67 41
learner. Plateau may also be caused by temporary loss of motivation or loss of interest. Plateau sometimes shows lack of maturity of the learner. It may also show that teacher is not following good and efficient methods. In many cases plateau is due to fatigue or a sense of boredom. The learner gets fatigued or bored of the task and shows this by a period of lack of progress.
The teacher should help learners understand in this condition,
which is for strengthening their knowledge and gaining confidence. This
phase is to help the learners become more autonomous as language users.
Below are the additional main points of Bangalore Kuppuswamy‟s
notion from the explanation above:
1) Difficulty
Difficulty is part of students‟ process in learning. Every student definitely
feels that thing, especially in understanding the instructions, including
English subject. Basically, difficulty means when something is not easy
to do or understand.42 It is so hard for mainly students to face this matter.
They will be frustrated and seem to be lazy to do or study English.
2) Complexity
Complexity is when something has many parts and may be difficult to
understand or find an answer to.43 The students who face that will think
that everything is useless. In other hand, it depends on their own
suggestion. If they still consider English subject as the source of
complexity, they will believe that English is not important.
3) Interest
Interest is a feeling or emotion that causes attention to focus on an object
or an event or a process.44 It influences the students in undergoing
saturation in learning or not. Students who have great interest usually
42 Cambridge Advanced Learners’ Dictionary 3rd Edition–
Computer Dictionary; Version 3.0, (Cambridge University Press, 2008)
43 Cambridge Advanced Learners’ Dictionary 3rd Edition–
Computer Dictionary; Version 3.0, (Cambridge University Press, 2008)
44Interest (emotion)
will focus on the goal; what and for what they learnt. A subject will be
easy to master, and decrease them from learning plateau.
4) Maturity
It deals with both physically and psychologically aspect. In Cambridge
Advanced Learners’ Dictionary 3rd
Edition, it is the quality of behaving mentally and emotionally like an adult. In other hand maturity is the state
of being completely grown physically.45 Partly cited from Eleanor
Roosevelt, a mature person is one who has learned that there is both good
and bad in all people and all things.46 Commonly, the students, in this
case are adolescents, have different maturity. They think that English is
useful both for present or future, so they will be active immediately in
one hand. On the other hand, some of them are not sure that English is
useful, so they may be in learning plateau.
5) Teacher Method
Teacher Method is crucial role in learning process. It is the way that
influences the students in their achievement track. As educators, the
teachers face many challenges as they decide which methods are best for
organizing and delivering instruction to diverse populations of students.
The strategies and methods they use play a critical role in developing
successful instruction in diverse classrooms. How they decide to teach is
important for all learners, especially for students with disabilities,
students from culturally or linguistically diverse backgrounds, and
students who are different in other educationally relevant ways.47 As
majority of the students are hailed from rural areas, so the teacher must
be as innovative as possible in order to avoid them from saturation in
learning.
6) Fatigue
45 Cambridge Advanced Learners’ Dictionary 3rd Edition–
Computer Dictionary; Version 3.0, (Cambridge University Press, 2008)
46 Maturity Quotes, http://thinkexist.com/quotations/maturity/,
(Cited on 22 November 2011)
47
Fatigue is the feeling of extreme tiredness or weakness that can make it
difficult for one to perform ordinary tasks.48 Fatigue affects every student
differently. Sometimes the students may feel tired and the activity they
want to do is sleep in the class.
7) Boredom
According to C. D. Fisher, boredom is an unpleasant, transient affective
state in which the individual feels a pervasive lack of interest in and
difficulty concentrating on the current activity.49 During learning process,
the students sometimes feel bored. They want something to be changed
and different, but in the fact it is not happened and undoubtedly they feel
saturated. That is why, the English teacher must be able to change this
condition faced by students with some entertainment, game, for example.
Learning Plateau is kind of learning problem, therefore it must be overcame as effective as possible. In Indonesia, learning English, as one of
foreign language, seems not to be easy. Below, their most common other
learning difficulties which Indonesian students face:50
1. Listening comprehension difficulties due to limited vocabulary, poor
grasp of syntax, and the speed at which others speak.
2. Reading difficulties due to differences in basic phonology, limited sight
vocabulary, and (when reading fiction) not having had firsthand
experience of situations or contexts being described.
3. Inability to engage meaningfully with new information, concepts and
problems due to lack of understanding of the associated language.
4. The communication difficulty can also limit social interaction with
other students.
5. Poor relationship between student and teacher. Students want teachers
to have faith in them and to care about them.
48
Fatigue, http://www.pdhealth.mil/veterans/downloads/fatigue.pdf, (Cited on 25 November 2011)
49Boredom
, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boredom, (Cited on 22 November 2011)
50
3. Student Work Sheet
a. The Definition of Student Work Sheet
Student work sheet or in Indonesia commonly called “lembar kerja siswa/ LKS” is one of learning media that can be used by another learning
sources or media because of its usefulness, depending on the designed
learning activities.51 In fact, it is a book of summary subject that is
embedded by a drove of questions, especially multiple choice questions.
The subject material is not conveyed by the teacher with description or
reading text, but in simple form; summary or important points of the
subjects.52
Since student work sheet has been existed and used in the school,
the teacher effectiveness is becoming more increasing. The teacher only
explains the main discussion of the subject and develops a material with its
addition as well. The existence of student work sheet makes the students
demanded to exercise frequently. With this way, the students cognitive
aspect becomes better and better.53 Student work sheet makes the teachers
easy to deliver the core of material because it is simple.
b. The Functions of Student Work Sheet
Below, the student work sheet functions and it seems to be the
advantages, as follow:54
1) It is kind of alternative for teacher to run the learning or to introduce
certain activity in the class as learning activity.
51
Endang Widjajanti, “Pelatihan Penyusunan LKS Mata Pelajaran Kimia Berdasarkan
Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan Bagi Guru SMK/MAK”, Kegiatan Pengabdian pada
Masyarakat, (Yogyakarta: UNY, 22 Agustus 2008), p.1
52
Joko Sutrisno, Pengaruh Pemakaian LKS Jenis Tertentu Terhadap Kemampuan
Membaca dan Berpikir Kritis pada Siswa SD Tingkat Rendah,
http://www.erlangga.co.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=355&joscclean=1&c omment_id=1810, (Retrieved on 25 June 2011)
53
Hasan Saiful Rizal, Fenomena LKS (Lembar Kerja Siswa),
http://hasanrizal.wordpress.com/2010/01/11/fenomena-lks-lembar-kerja-siswa/, (Cited on 24 June 2011)
54
Endang Widjajanti, “Pelatihan Penyusunan LKS Mata Pelajaran Kimia Berdasarkan Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan Bagi Guru SMK/MAK”, Kegiatan Pengabdian pada
2) It can be used to quicken learning process and to save the time of
presenting topic of the subject.
3) It can be used to identify the students how far they master the material.
4) It can optimize the learning process that deals with limited visual aids.
5) It can help the students more active in learning process.
6) It can stimulate students‟ interest toward the subject if it is composed
well and systematically so that they are interested easily.
7) It can improve students‟ confidence, motivation and curiosity in
learning.
8) It can facilitate students to complete and to finish individual and group
task depending on their learning ability.
9) It can be used to familiarize the students in using time as effective as
possible.
10) It can improve students‟ ability to solve the problem of their subject.
In teaching a subject, student work sheet often can be used to
stimulate students‟ learning activity. Since the students will perceive to be
given moral responsibility to finish a task and they must do it, moreover
they will be glad if the teacher gives more attention to their work in
student work sheet.
c. The Weakness of Student Work Sheet
On the other hand, there are weaknesses of student work sheet,
there are:
1) Most of student work sheets contain material summary only.
With this model, the students just seem to be given with facts and
information of the subject without an opportunity to evaluate and
conclude the material by themselves. It may be good for the students
who have read the subject material on the textbook first. But then, the
problem is many schools – particularly state schools – make the student
summary in student work sheet, the students‟ chance to read the
material critically is not available.
2) Most of student work sheets are multiple choices.
Joko Sutrisno posted:
In 1991, American Education Reform states that multiple choice questions cannot be used to examine high level thinking ability, problem solving ability, creativity, and initiative attitude. This kind of questions only can be employed to drill low level thinking ability like memorizing.55
Multiple choice questions looks as if it is the only one way to express
the mind when answering the questions. Besides, it will enervate logical
effort that causes some speculation when the students face a difficulty.56
If this condition left continuously, it is possible that students‟ ability to
understand the text and think critically will not be developed.
Abdul Kiflih adds some points of view of the weakness, as he calls
as “negative value” of using student work sheet/ lembar kerja siswa (LKS), as follow:57
a. LKS impacts the teacher less creative/ unimaginative
If the teacher relies on student work sheet as the only one learning
source from certain publisher, it means that he or she just follow what
in the student work sheet, without any new ideas that can refresh
students‟ mind.
b. It makes the teacher idle to repeat or to read the material again
Student work sheet is usually attached with key answers and sometimes
it wrong. To search the right answer, the teacher makes kind of
55
Joko Sutrisno, Pengaruh Pemakaian LKS Jenis Tertentu Terhadap Kemampuan
Membaca dan Berpikir Kritis pada Siswa SD Tingkat Rendah,
http://www.erlangga.co.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=355&joscclean=1&c omment_id=1810, (Retrieved on 25 June 2011)
56 Penggunaan LKS yang Salah Kaprah
, http://www.maha-yusa.co.cc/2010/01/penggunaan-buku-lks.html, (Cited on 26 june 2010)
57
permission to the students to leave the class a moment. It is
embarrassing.
c. It makes the teacher busy with his/ her claim toward its payment
Both for the teacher or the students, student work sheet can waste their
time in the beginning of the teaching process. When the class will be
begun, some students who not complete in student work sheet payment
approach the teacher to pay off. Ironically, the teacher lets other
students to do what their friends did. It spends time meaningless in
teaching process.
d. The Weakness of English Student Work Sheet in Indonesia
Although the information about the weakness of English student
work sheet is not available more in journals or articles in Indonesia, the
researcher tries to adapt between English student work sheet weaknesses
and textbook weaknesses that has similarities based on Jack C. Richards‟
notion. They are:58
1) They may contain inauthentic language
Textbook sometimes presents inauthentic language since texts, dialogs
and other aspects of content tend to be specially written to incorporate
teaching points and are often not representative of real language use.
The researcher analysis:59
This problem is not far from English student work sheet in Indonesia. In
few student work sheets, sometimes we find error written English there.
It is natural because not every student work sheet composer from
competent background in mastering English.
2) They may distort content http://www.professorjackrichards.com/pdfs/role-of-textbooks.pdf, (Downloaded on 28 June 2011)
59
different context controversial topics are avoided and instead an
idealized white middle-class view of the world is portrayed as the norm.
The researcher analysis:
In one hand, there are many appropriate English materials of student
work sheet for middle schooler, but on the other hand, there are few
higher level of the material (for the next class), so that they feel hard to
do the task.
3) They may not reflect students‟ needs
Since textbook are often written for global markets they often do not
enough to their need, either grammatically or literally.
4) They may deskill60 teacher
If teachers use textbooks as the primary source teaching leaving the
textbook and teachers‟ manual to make the major instructional decision
for them the teacher‟s role can become reduced, especially in presenting
materials prepared by others.
The researcher analysis:
It means that the English teacher should have another teaching media in
transferring knowledge. Based on the analogy, a teacher who only uses
English student work sheet as only one material source portrays
inability. Whereas, student work sheet is used as teacher supporter after
textbook. (Cambridge Advanced Learners’ Dictionary 3rd Edition–
The researcher analysis:
Although student work sheet is not as expensive as textbook, but it
describes extravagant since student work sheet is not only of English
subject, but also another subject. In some remote schools that its
students are majority from petit bourgeois61 family, it seems not cheap.
4. Classroom Condition
a.The Definition of Classroom
A classroom is a room in which teaching or learning activities can
take place. Classrooms are found in educational institutions of all kinds,
including public and private schools, corporations, and religious and
humanitarian organizations. The classroom attempts to provide a safe
space where learning can take place uninterrupted by other distractions.62
The furniture of the classroom consists of desks and seats either for the
students or the teacher, class cupboard, blackboard and other appropriate
classroom accessories.63
In many schools in Indonesia, the teaching-learning process is
commonly conducted in the classroom and does not move from one class
to another class. Indeed, it could influence students‟ psychological
condition. The teacher has to be as creative as possible in managing class
with accessories at hand.
b.Classroom Environment
Finn and Wilson in Peter Westwood stated that it is commonly
believed that the smaller the class the better it is for students‟ learning. The
commonsense argument suggests that with smaller classes teachers are
much more able to identify learning problems, provide individual
61Petit bourgeois
: belonging to the lower middle social class, or having the characteristic that are connected with this class, such as valuing money and possession too much and not trusting new or different ideas. (Cambridge Advanced Learners’ Dictionary 3rd Edition –
Computer Dictionary)
62Classroom
, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classroom, (Accessed on 20 July 2011)
63
attention, and adapt instruction to individual differences among students.
Simply reducing class size does not automatically result in higher
achievement and lower failure rates because many other factors such as
behavior and quality of teaching are important. When class size is reduced
teachers may still tend to teach small classes in exactly the same way they
taught large classes, with no adaptations made and limited individual
attention for students. A few studies have even found that large classes
actually produce a higher general level of achievement, possibly because
the teacher is obliged to use a fairly structured approach and maintain good
classroom management.64
The good ambience of the class is a reflection of ideal teaching
process. Either the teacher or the students will feel comfort in a conducive
class. Hence, they are better to have same commitment to create good
environment.
c.Teacher Roles in the Classroom
The teacher is a facilitator of classroom learning. He has a number
of roles to fulfill. He is the manager of the classroom activities. In this
role, one of his major responsibilities is to establish situations that are most
likely to promote communication among the learners. During the
activities, he acts as an advisor, answering the learner‟s question and
monitoring their performance. He may also be “a co-communicator”,
engaging himself in the communicative activities with the learners. After
class, he is a friend of the learners, cherishing a good rapport with them. A
teacher whom his students are afraid of can hardly involve them in his
classroom activities.65
64
Peter Westwood, Learning and Learning Difficulties: a Handbook for Teachers, (Victoria: ACER Press, 2004), p.59
65
On the other hand, control is fundamental in classroom
management. Acquiring and achieving self-control is one of life‟s
fundamental tasks. Effective teacher control enhances teaching, enables
learning and teaches self control. How a teacher achieves and maintains
control will determine their success both in their teaching and in
facilitating student learning.66 Classroom control emanates from
self-control and planning, not from self-controlling others. When students know the
teacher is in control of what is happening in the classroom, they will feel
safe and ready to learn.67
Teacher is key person in learning process for the students. Anyway,
he or she has to be able to manage everything found in the classroom,
including the students.
C.Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts and
can be tested by further investigation.68 The researcher offers alternative
hypothesis ( ) that is proposed in this research: “male and female students‟
saturation is not identical in doing English student work sheet in the classroom”
with the formula : X ? Y. This hypothesis will be tested through null
hypothesis ( ) test, it is “male and female students‟ saturation is identical in
doing English student work sheet in the classroom” with the formula : X = Y. If
is accepted, is refused and vice versa.
66
Jenny Mackay, Coat of Many Pockets: Managing Classroom Interactions, (Victoria, ACER Press, 2006), p.25
67
Jenny Mackay, Coat of Many Pockets: Managing Classroom Interactions, p.26
68
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD
In this chapter, the researcher presented in details the method of the
research used in this study. It is divided into several sub chapters. They are;
research design, research setting, population and sample, variable and indicator,
data collection technique, and data analysis technique.
A. Research Design
Research design refers to the schema or plan that constitutes the entire
research study.1 There are two kinds of research design/ method; they are
qualitative and quantitative research. Quantitative research is the research which is
based on positivism philosophy in which is used for observing certain populations
or sampling. The technique to get sample is usually done randomly, collecting
data commonly uses instrument and data analysis using statistical approach to
examine a hypothesis. While Qualitative approach is research method which is
based on post-positivism philosophy, it is used to observe natural object where
researcher is the instrument key.2 Quantitative research generates statistics
through the use of large scale survey research, using methods such as
questionnaires or structured interviews.3
Comparative research is a descriptive study that compares between two
or more situation, phenomenon, activity and others which are same or similar, and
then it is shown to find the similarity or difference.4 The purpose of this research
is to compare between male and female students‟ saturation in doing English
1
David Scott and Marlene Morrison, Key Ideas in Educational Research, (London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006), p.58
2
Sugiyono, Metode Penelitian Pendidikan, (Bandung: Alfabeta Press, 2008), p.15.
3
Catherine Dawson, Introduction to Research Methods, (Begbroke: How To Books, 2009), p.15
4
student work sheet of eighth grade at MTs Darul Hikmah Menganti Kedung
Jepara.
Characteristics of quantitative research according to Zoltán Dörnyei are
as follow: 5
a. Using Numbers
The single most important feature of quantitative research is,
naturally, that is centered around numbers. This both opens up a range of
possibilities and sets some limitations for researchers.
b. A priori categorization
Because the use of number already dominates the data collection
phase, the work required to specify the categories and values needs to be
done prior to the actual study. If, for example, respondents are asked to encircle figures in a questionnaire item, they have to know exactly what
those figures represent, and in order to make sure that each respondent
gives their numerical answer based on the same understanding, the
definition and value descriptors need to be unambiguous.
c. Variables rather than cases
Quantitative researchers are less interested in individuals than in
the common features of group of people. Therefore, in contrast to the
qualitative emphasis on the individual case, quantitative research is
centered around the study of variables that capture these common features and which are quantified by counting, scaling, or by assigning
values to categorical data. All the various quantitative methods are aimed
at identifying the relationships between variables by measuring them and
often also manipulating them.
d. Statistics and the language of statistics
Because of the close link of quantitative research and statistics,
much of the statistical terminology has become part of the quantitative
5
